Miss   Sue  Dunbar 


• 
1 


THE 


CLASS  BOOK  OF  NATURE; 

COMPRISING  LESSONS  ON 

THE    UNIVERSE, 

THE  THREE  KINGDOMS  OF  NATURE, 

AND 

TETE  FORM  AND  STRUCTURE 

OP 
THE  HUMAN  BODY. 

WITH  QUESTIONS  AND  NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS. 

EDITED  BY  J.  FROST.  ^ 

THIRD  EDITION. 


HARTFORD. 

BELKNAP  AND  HAMERSLEY. 
1838. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  iu  the  year  1836,  by 

BELKNAP  &  HAMERSLET; 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut. 


CASE   &   TIFFANY, PRINT. 


PREFACE. 


THE  following  work  was  originally  published,  as 
one  of  a  series  of  school  books,  by  the  Committee  of 
General  Literature  and  Education  appointed  by  the 
Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  Altera- 
tions and  additions  have  been  made  to  adapt  it  to  the 
use  of  schools  in  this  country,  and  it  is  now  offered 
to  the  public  as  a  suitable  class-book  of  natural  science, 
for  popular  use ;  presenting  the  pupil  with  a  general 
survey  of  the  universe  as  a  system  ;  of  the  three  king- 
doms of  nature,  and  the  classes  of  objects  comprised 
m  each ;  and,  finally,  of  the  form  and  structure  of  the 
human  frame. 

The  editor  believes  that  a  work  of  this  description 
will  be  acceptable  to  parents,  teachers,  and  pupils. 
The  summary  views  of  the  universe,  and  of  the  several 
classes  of  objects  comprised  in  the  departments  of 
zoology,  botany,  and  mineralogy,  will  supply  a  want 
which  has  been  frequently  complained  of  by  persons 
interested  in  education.  That  part  of  the  volume 
which  is  devoted  to  a  description  of  the  human  form 
and  structure,  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important  of  all, 
though  it  relates  to  a  subject  which  has  been  surpris- 
ingly neglected  in  our  schools  and  academies.  While 
our  children  are  taught  many  branches  of  learning 
which  are  nearly  useless,  not  a  single  school  book 
in  common  use  contains  that  amount  of  information 
concerning  the  physiology  of  man  which  is  essential 

5 


6  PREFACE. 

to  the  preservation  of  health  and  the  intelligent  obser- 
vation of  those  natural  laws  on  which  much  of  our 
comfort  and  tranquillity  depends. 

If  there  is  any  natural  object  in  the  wide  creation 
worthy  of  the  attention  and  study  of  youth,  it  is  the 
human  system.  Certainly  there  is  no  other  material 
object  which  more  fully  displays  the  Creator's  wis- 
dom, power,  and  goodness.  The  slightest  study  of 
our  mortal  frame  draws  forth  that  reverent  and  feeling 
exclamation — "We  are  fearfully  and  wonderfully 
made!"  Yet  our  children  are  too  often  suffered  to 
grow  up,  and  finish  their  term  of  school  instruction, 
without  ever  having  their  attention  called  to  this  sub- 
ject. Such  ignorance  should  not  be  suffered  any 
longer  to  exist.  It  is  unworthy  of  rational  beings  to 
spend  months  and  years  in  acquiring  frivolous  and 
useless  accomplishments,  while  they  remain  wholly 
uninformed  concerning  the  organs,  powers,  and  facul- 
ties which  the  all- wise  Creator  has  given  them ;  and 
of  the  most  obviously  necessary  precautions  for  their 
preservation. 

The  editor  believes  that  the  members  of  the  medical 
profession  will  approve  of  that  part  of  the  volume  to 
which  he  at  present  refers ;  as  one  of  the  most  fre- 
quent causes  of  their  want  of  success,  is  the  deplorable 
ignorance  of  their  patients  on  those  points  of  physiology 
with  which  every  one  should  be  acquainted. 


CONTENTS. 


LESSONS  ON  THE  UNIVERSE. 

Page 

The  Universe 11 

The  Sun ;  the  solar  System 13 

The  Planets;  Comets;  fixed  Stars 15 

Form  and  and  Magnitude  of  the  Earth 19 

The  Sea,  Rivers,  &c 24 

The  Atmosphere ;  Winds,  Dew,  Fogs,  and  Clouds 26 

Evaporation  ;  Rain,  Snow,  Hail 31 

Electricity  ;  Thunder,  Lightning 33 

Different  Races  of  Mankind 37 

The  Polar  Race 39 

The  Mongol  Race 42 

The  Negro  Race - 45 

The  Red,  or  Copper-coloured  Race 47 

The  White  Race 50 

Savage,  pastoral,  and  civilized  Nations 52 

THE  THREE  KINGDOMS  OF  NATURE. 

Natural  Objects  in  general 55 

The  three  Kingdoms  of  Nature 57 

Productions  of  hot  Countries  , .  .* 59 

Productions  of  cold  Countries 62 

Productions  of  temperate  Countries 65 

Of  Animals  in  general 68 

On  the  Senses  of  Animals 71 

7 


8  CONTENTS.    . 

Page 
Clothing  of  Animals » 74 

Sleep  of  Animals 77 

Migration  of  Animals ;  Birds  of  Passage 80 

First  Class  of  Animal ;  Mammalia 83 

Mammalia  of  the  Sea. .  < 87 

Utility  of  the  Mammalia  to  Man 90 

Birds  in  general 93 

Structure  of  Birds 96 

Food  of  Birds;   the  Condor 99 

Plumage  of  Birds ;  Song  Birds 102 

Birds'  Nests ;  Age  t)f  Birds 106 

Services  rendered  by  Birds 110 

Reptiles  ;  Poisonous  Animals 113 

Habits  of  Reptiles 117 

Age  of  Reptiles 121 

Fishes  ;  their  Migrations 125 

Fins  of  Fish  ;   Air-bladder  ;   Electric  Fish 128 

Herrings ;    Salmon  ;   Remora 131 

Insects  in  general 134 

Trunk  or  Tongue  of  Insects  ;  Wings  ;  Feet 137 

Habits  of  Insects 140 

Changes  of  Insects 145 

Usefulness  of  Insects. 148 

Molluscous  Animals 151 

Shells ;  Pearls 1 54 

Zoophytes  ;  Coral ;    Sponges 157 

The  vegetable  Kingdom 160 

Roots;  Seeds;  Buds 163 

Flowers ;    Structure,  Size,  Odour 166 

Periods  of  Flowering ;  Diffusion  of  Seeds 170 

Trees ;  their  Usefulness 173 

Fruit ;   Grasses ;  Vegetables 177 

Moss ;  Fungi ;  Ferns ;  Lichens. ;  Sea-weed 180 

The  Mineral  Kingdom 183 

Metals t 186 

Iron,  Copper,  Tin,  and  Lead 189 

Coal,  Sulphur,  and  Naphtha 192 

Rocks;  Slate,  Clay,  Salt 195 


CONTENTS.  9 

THE  FORM,  STRUCTURE,  AND  SENSES  OF  MAN. 

Page 

Of  Man  in  general 198 

Structure  of  the  human  Body ~ 201 

Organs  of  Support  and  Motion 204 

Standing,  Walking,  Running,  Leaping,  Sitting 207 

Vessels  of  the  human  Body 210 

The  Nerves,  Glands,  Secretion 213 

The  Skin,  Hair,  Nails 216 

The  Organs  of  Digestion 219 

The  Teeth,  Digestion,  &c 222 

The  Heart,  Circulation  of  the  Blood,  &c 225 

The  Lungs ;  Respiration 228 

Organs  of  Voice  ;  Warmth  of  the  human  Body 232 

The  Brain  ;  Superiority  of  Man 234 

The  Senses 238 

The  Tongue,  Nose,  Ear 241 

The  Eye  ;  Vision ..^ 245 

Changes  of  the  human  Iff • 248 

Differences  in  the  Form  oOtankind  and  the  inferior  Animals  252 

Instinct  of  Man  and  Animals ;   Reason 255 

The  Beauty  and  Perfection  of  Body  and  Mind 258 

Of  Eating  and  Drinking 261 

Of  Clothing 41 264 

Of  Exercise  and  Rest 267 

Of  Cleanliness  in  Person  and  Dress 270 

Of  pure  Air * 273 

Of  the  Preservation  of  our  Bodies 276 

The  Temper  and  Passions , 280 


-V 


THE   UNIVERSE. 


LESSON  I. 

THE  UNIVERSE. 

WE  understand  by  the  word  universe,  the  entire 
system  of  things  which  God  has  created.  The 
world  in  which  we  live  forms  a  very  small  part  of 
the  universe.  There  are  numberless  other  worlds, 
far  surpassing  ours  in  magnitude.  Many  of  these 
worlds,  that  cannot  be  seen  in  the  day-time, 
may  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  in  a  clear  night. 
They  appear,  indeed,  like  points  of  light;  but, 
if  they  were  not  very  large,  we  should  not  be  able 
to  discern  them  at  all:  they  are  always  moving 
about  in  that  vast  blue  vault  which  is  above  our 

11 


12  THE   UNIVERSE. 

heads.  We  call  that  vault  the  heavens;  and  we 
know  it  to  be  a  space  which  is  without  any  limit, 
or  end. 

We  name  the  world  in  which  we  live,  the 
earth ;  we  name  the  bodies  which  give  or  reflect 
light,  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  stars.  These 
bodies  are  sjhaped  like  balls,  and,  from  their  shape, 
are  called  globes,  or  orbs. 

Some  of  the  heavenly  orbs  are  supposed  to 
be  inhabited,  but  they  are  unfit  for  the  abode 
of  such  a  being  as  man,  who  lives  on  the  earth. 
Their  inhabitants  must,  therefore,  be  of  a  different 
nature  from  ourselves.  The  Almighty  Maker, 
we  may  be  assured,  has  adapted  these  worlds  to 
the  nature  of  the  beings  whom  he  has  placed  in 
them. 

Men  who  observe  the  stars  and  the  other 
heavenly  bodies  are  called  astronomers.  The 
science  which  they  cultivate  is  called  astronomy. 

Astronomers  call  the  space  in  the  heavens, 
through  which  an  orb  moves,  its  orbit.  They 
call  any  straight  line  passing  through  the  centre 
of  an  orb,  and  ended  at  each  extremity  by  the  cir- 
cumference, a  diameter ;  and  the  diameter  round 
which  an  orb  is  supposed  to  move,  they  call  its 
axis.  The  circumference  of  a  globe  or  circle  is 
the  distance  round  it. 


Questions. 

What  is  the  universe  ? 

Does  the  world  in  which  we  live  belong  to  the  universe? 


THE    SOLAR    SYSTEM  13 

Are  there  other  worlds  besides  ours  t 

When  are  they  to  be  seen  ? 

What  is  their  appearance  ? 

Do  the  heavenly  bodies  stand  still  or  move  ? 

What  is  the  world  in  which  we  live  called  ? 

WTiich  are  the  bodies  that  give,  or  reflect,  light? 

Of  what  shape  are  they  ? 

What  are  they  called  in  consequence  *? 

Is  it  probable  that  any  of  the  heavenly  bodies  are  inhabited  ? 

What  is  the  space  called  through  which  they  move  1 

What  is  the  diameter  of  an  orb  ? 

What  is  the  axis  of  an  orb  1 

What  is  the  meaning  of  circumference  ? 


LESSON  II. 

THE    SUN THE    MOON THE    SOLAR    SYSTEM. 


THE  sun  is  the  largest  of  all  those  orbs  which 
we  behold  in  the  heavens.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
surrounded  by  a  luminous  atmosphere,  from  which 
light  and  heat  are  transmitted  to  the  earth  which 
we  inhabit,  as  well  as  to  the  other  orbs,  which  all 
move  round  the  sun  as  their  centre.  The  diameter 
of  the  sun  is  888,000  miles;  a  space  so  vast  that  it 
is  difficult  to  convey  a  correct  idea  of  it.  If  a  man 
were  to  travel  at  the  rate  of  100  miles  a  day,  he 


14  THE    SOLAR    SYSTEM. 

would  be  able  to  go  round  the  whole  earth  In 
three  quarters  of  a  year;  but  the  sun  is  so  large 
that,  even  travelling  at  the  same  speed,  he  would 
be  75  years  in  making  a  journey  round  it. 

Next  to  the  sun,  the  moon  is,  to  us,  the  most 
interesting  object  among  the  heavenly  bodies. 
The  dazzling  splendour  of  the  sun  renders  a  full 
view  of  it  painful  to  the  human  sight.  The  bright- 
ness of  the  moon,  on  the  contrary,  arising  from  the 
light  which  it  reflects,  is  grateful  and  pleasing  to 
the  eye,  and  its  silvery  beam  relieves  with  a  cheer- 
ing influence  the  dulness  of  our  long  winter  nights. 
Its  changes  from  the  thin  crescent  to  the  full  orb, 
and  its  waning  from  the  full  to  the  crescent  again, 
lead  us  to  admire  the  wisdom  and  power  of  God, 
by  whom  all  these  wonderful  things  were  made, 
and  who  regulates  all  their  motions. 

The  earth,  and  the  other  orbs  which  move 
round  the  sun,  compose  what  is  called  the  solar 
system.  Twenty -three  of  these  orbs  may  be  dis- 
tinctly seen :  they  are  called  planets.  Planet 
means  moving  star.  Primary  planets  move  round 
the  sun  :  secondary  planets  move  round  some  one 
of  the  primary  planets,  and  are  called  their  moons, 
or  satellites.  All  the  planets  move  also  round 
their  own  axis  ;  some  in  a  longer,  others  in  a 
shorter  time ;  and  the  length  of  their  days  varies 
accordingly. 

Questions. 
What  is  the  sun  1 
How  great  is  its  diameter  * 


THE    PLANETS.  15 

What  does  it  give  to  the  earth? 

In  what  respect  does  the  light  of  the  moon  differ  from  that 
of  the  sun  ? 

What  season  is  relieved  by  the  influence  of  the  moon  ? 
What  alterations  in  form  does  the  moon  undergo  ? 
What  does  all  this  lead  us  to  admire  ? 
What  do  you  understand  by  the  solar  system  ? 
How  many  of  the  heavenly  bodies  move  round  the  sun  ? 
What  are  they  called  ] 
Wrhat  is  a  planet  1 
What  are  primary  planets  7 
What  are  secondary  planets  ? 
What  other  names  are  given  to  them  ? 
What  determines  the  length  of  the  days  in  the  planets  ? 


LESSON  III. 

THE    PLANETS COMETS — THE    FIXED    STARS. 

THERE  are  eleven  primary  planets,  named  Mer- 
cury, Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars,  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres, 
Pallas,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus,  which  is  also 
called  the  Georgium  Sidus. 

Mercury,  the  nearest  to  the  sun,  being  distant 
from  it  thirty-four  millions  of  miles,  is  3,200  miles 
in  diameter,  and  performs  its  journey  round  the 
sun  in  about  eighty-eight  days,  moving  in  a  single 
second  nearly  thirty  of  our  miles. 

Venus  is  7,700  miles  in  diameter,  and  revolves 

round  the  sun  in  224  days  16  hours,  at  the  distance 

of  nearly  sixty-nine  millions  of  miles.     This  is  the 

Brightest  of  all  the  planets,  and  is  sometimes  to  be 

een  in  the  day-time  with  the  naked  eye.     It  is 


16  THE    PLANETS. 

called,  from  the  splendour  of  its  appearance,  the 
morning  star,  when  it  is  to  the^  westward  of  the 
sun,  and  therefore  rises  before  him ;  and  the  evening 
star,  when  it  is  to  the  eastward  of  that  luminary, 
and  sets  after  him. 

The  Earth,  on  which  we  live,  is  nearly  eight 
thousand  miles  in  diameter.  It  revolves  upon  its 
axis  in  twenty-four  hours,  which  is  our  day,  and 
completes  its  journey  round  the  sun  in  365  days, 
six  hours,  and  some  minutes,  which  constitute  our 
year ;  and  it  travels  in  that  time  550  millions  of 
miles.  The  moon  is  the  constant  attendant  of  the 
earth,  round  which  it  revolves  at  the  distance  of 
240,000  miles,  and  is  about  2000  miles  in  diameter. 
The  moon  is  the  nearest  to  us  of  all  the  heavenly 
bodies;  and  in  size  about  one  sixty -fourth  part 
of  the  earth. 

Mars  is  4,220  miles  in  diameter,  and  about 
one-iifth  as  large  as  the  earth.  It  is  145  millions 
of  miles  from  the  sun,  and  revolves  round  it  in  686 
days. 

Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas,  are  four  small 
planets,  discovered  in  the  present  century,  which 
revolve  between  Mars  and  Jupiter.  Juno,  the 
largest  of  them,  is  supposed  to  have  a  diameter 
of  about  200  miles,  while  that  of  Pallas  does  not 
exceed  seventy.  Their  distances  from  the  sun 
vary  between  223  and  260  millions  of  miles. 

Jupiter  is  nearly  500  millions  of  miles  distant 
from  the  sun,  around  which  it  revolves  in  about 
twelve  years.  It  has  a  diameter  of  almost  90,000 


COMETS.  17 

miles,  and  is  1470  times  as  large  as  the  earth. 
This  planet,  the  largest  of  the  solar  system,  is  re- 
markable for  four  moons,  which  move  round  it,  as 
our  moon  moves  round  the  earth,  and  during  its 
nights,  reflect  upon  it  light  received  from  the 
sun. 

Saturn  is  at  the  distance  of  nearly  900  millions 
of  miles  from  the  sun,  about  80,000  miles  in 
diameter,  and  requires  twenty-nine  years  and  a 
half  to  perform  his  journey.  Saturn  has  seven 
moons  revolving  round  it,  and  reflecting  upon  it 
the  sun's  light,  and  it  is  encircled  also  by  a  broad 
ring,  that  is  always  brilliant.  The  ring  is  com- 
posed of  two  distinct  parts,  separated  by  a  space 
of  about  250  miles.  It  is  in  breadth  about  one- 
third  of  Saturn's  diameter,  and  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  planet. 

The  planet  Uranus  takes  eighty-three  years  to 
complete  its  revolution  round  the  sun.  Its  dis- 
tance from  that  luminary  is  1803  millions  of  miles. 
Being  about  40,000  miles  in  diameter,  it  is  seventy- 
eight  times  as  large  as  our  earth. 

COMETS. 

A  class  of  moving  bodies,  occasionally  seen, 
followed  by  a  train  of  light,  which  bears  a  fancied 
resemblance  to  flowing  hair,  are  thence  called 
comets.  At  their  first  appearance,  comets  are 
scarcely  perceptible,  but  as  they  approach  the  sun, 
they  increase  in  size  and  velocity;  and  then,  by 
degrees,  diminish  and  disappear.  Their  motions 

B2 


18  THE    FIXED    STARS. 

are  very  irregular.     It  is  supposed  that  there  are  at 
least  a  thousand  comets  belonging  to  our  system. 

THE    FIXED    STARS. 

The  other  heavenly  bodies  which  are  seen  in 
the  firmament  are  called  fixed  stars.  The  num- 
ber of  stars  which  may  be  seen  at  any  time  by  the 
naked  eye  is  not  much  above  one  thousand ;  but 
44,000  have  been  discovered  by  the  aid  of  the 
telescope.  These  stars  have  been  arranged  by 
astronomers  into  various  collections  called  constel- 
lations, and  names  are  given  to  them,  as,  the  great 
bear,  the  virgin,  the  scales,  &c.  All  these  constel- 
lations are  delineated  on  the  celestial  globe. 


Questions. 

How  many  primary  planets  are  there! 
What  are  their  names  ? 
Which  of  them  is  nearest  to  the  sun  ? 
Which  is  the  next? 
For  what  is  Venus  remarkable  ? 
What  other  names  are  given  to  this  planet  1 
What  is  the  diameter  of  the  earth  ? 
In  what  time  does  it  make  its  journey  round  the  sun? 
What  do  we  call  that  period  of  time  1 
How  does  the  moon  move! 
Is  it  larger  or  smaller  than  the  earth ? 
Which  is  the  next  of  the  planets  ? 
What  is  the  size  of  Mars  1  * 

Which  are  the  lately  discovered  planets  ? 
Which  is  the  largest  of  them  ? 
What  is  its  diameter? 

Which  is  the  largest  of  the  planets  of  the  solar  system? 
For  what  is  it  remarkable  ? 
How  far  is  Saturn  distant  from  the  sun  1 


THE    EARTH.  19 

What  is  there  remarkable  about  Saturn  ? 

Which  of  the  planets  is  the  farthest  from  the  sun  ? 

How  long  is  Saturn  in  performing  its  revolution  1 

What  are  comets  ] 

What  is  the  nature  of  their  course  ? 

Are  their  motions  regular  1 

What  are  the  fixed  stars  ] 

What  number  may  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye  ? 

How  many  have  been  discovered  with  the  telescope '? 

What  is  a  constellation? 


LESSON  IV. 

FORM  AND  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  EARTH. 

IT  is  difficult  to  discover  the  form  of  the  earth 
by  merely  looking  upon  it,  because  we  can  see 
but  a  small  part  of  it  at  once,  and  because  we  are 
too  near  to  it.  The  general  form  of  an  object  is, 
however,  to  be  ascertained  by  the  form  of  its 
shadow.  Now,  whenever  the  earth,  in  its  journey 
round  the  sun,  happens  to  be  in  a  straight  line 
between  the  sun  and  the  moon,  it  always  casts  a 
circular  shadow  upon  the  face  of  the  moon,  and 
thus  we  know  that  the  earth  is  round,  like  a 
globe. 

The  circumference  of  the  earth  is  about  25,000 
miles.  It  is  possible,  then,  to  travel  round  the 
earth.  If  you  turn  your  back  on  your  home, 
and  continue  to  travel  with  your  face  to  the  w^st, 
the  quarter  in  which  the  sun  sets,  you  will  arrive 
at  home  again  from  the  east,  or  the  quarter  in 


20  LAND    AND    WATER. 

which  the  sun  rises.  A  voyage  round  the  world 
may  be  performed  in  a  year,  if  a  ship  does  not 
stay  long  in  a  place,  and  wind  and  weather  prove 
favourable. 

LAND    AND    WATER. 

The  earth  consists  of  two  parts,  land  and  water. 
It  has  an  uneven  surface,  occasioned  by  the  many 
mountains  which  are  upon  it.  But  the  mountains, 
though  many  of  them  seem  to  us  very  lofty,  are, 
when  compared  to  the  size  of  the  earth,  as  small 
as  grains  of  sand  would  be  in  comparison  of  a 
cricket-ball.  The  water  occupies  about  twice  as 
much  space  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  as  the 
land. 

Representations  of  the  surface  of  the  earth 
are  called  maps.  On  a  map  which  represents 
the  whole  world  you  see  two  large  circles.  But 
you  must  not  on  that  account  imagine  that  the 
earth  consists  of  two  such  circles.  The  whole 
surface  of  a  globe  or  ball  cannot  be  shown  in 
any  other  way.  Suppose  you  wanted  to  represent 
the  whole  surface  of  an  orange,  you  would  be 
obliged  to  draw  it  as  two  circles.  Each  of  the 
circles  which  represent  the  earth  is  called  a 
hemisphere.  The  word  hemisphere  means  half  a 
globe. 

The  land  of  the  earth  is  divided  into  five  great 
parts,  sometimes  called  quarters  of  the  world.  Each 
part  has  a  distinct  name.  The  smallest  part,  situate 
towards  the  top  of  the  hemisphere  on  the  right 


LAND    AND    WATER.  21 

hand,  is  called  Europe.  In  the  same  hemisphere 
are  situate  three  other  parts  of  the  world,  ASIA, 
AFRICA,  and  part  of  AUSTRALIA.  In  the  hemi- 
sphere on  the  left  lie  AMERICA  and  part  of  Aus- 
tralia. We  live  in  America. 

You  find  upon  a  map  outlines  of  countries,  with 
their  names,  and  the  names  of  their  principal  cities. 
The  names  of  countries  are  distinguished  by  capi- 
tal letters.  Black  crooked  lines  show  the  courses 
of  rivers,  and  dark  patches  in  the  midst  of  the  land 
are  large  lakes.  Land  surrounded  by  water  is 
called  an  island  ;  and  land  nearly  surrounded  by 
water  is  called  a  peninsula. 


HILLS,  MOUNTAINS,  MINES,  CAVERNS. 

In  most  parts  of  the  earth  there  are  hills  and 
mountains.  Some  of  these  are  composed  wholly 
of  stone,  which  is  useful  to  man  for  many  purposes. 
In  different  places,  both  the  hills,  which  rise  above 
the  ground,  and  the  earth,  which  is  beneath  it,  con- 


22  LAND    AND    WATER. 

tain  copper,  iron,  and  other  valuable  substances, 
mixed  with  earthy  matter.  In  many  places,  coal, 
salt,  and  various  other  productions  of  great  value, 
are  found  deep  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  The  large 
and  deep  openings  made  to  obtain  them  are  called 
mines,  and  the  earthy  or  stony  matter,  among  which 
the  metals  and  minerals  are  found,  are  called  ores. 
Men  employed  in  digging  mines  are  called  miners. 

Mountains  which  send  forth  flames  and  clouds 
of  smoke  are  called  volcanoes.  These  sometimes 
discharge  also  streams  of  liquid  matter  called  lava, 
which  look  like  rivers  of  fire,  and  spread  terror, 
death,  and  destruction  around.  The  principal  vol- 
canoes in  Europe  are  Vesuvius  and  ^Etna. 

Fire  and  water  have  formed  in  the  earth  many 
extraordinary  caverns,  some  of  which  run  for  miles 
under  ground,  and  terminate  in  abrupt  precipices. 
The  water  incessantly  dropping  from  the  roofs  of 
caverns,  sometimes  forms  what  are  called  stalac- 
tites, which  hang  down  in  a  variety  of  curious  and 
beautiful  shapes. 

In  some  parts  of  the  earth  mighty  torrents  have 
broken  through  and  rent  asunder  huge  mountains, 
the  sides  of  which  now  form,  as  it  were,  immense 
gateways.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  straits  by 
which  some  countries  are  separated,  and  seas  have 
become  connected  :  the  straits  of  Gibraltar  supply 
an  instance,  where  Europe  and  Africa  approach 
near  to  each  other,  and  by  which  the  Mediterra- 
nean sea  is  connected  with  the  Atlantic  ocean. 


LAND    AND    WATER.  23 

Questions. 

How  may  the  shape  of  a  body  be  discovered  ? 
How  do  we  know  that  the  earth  is  round  ? 
What  is  the  circumference  of  a  globe  ? 
What  is  the  extent  of  the  earth's  circumference  ? 
If  we  were  to  set  out  and  keep  travelling  in  one  direction, 
what  would  happen  ? 

W7hat  are  the  parts  of  which  the  earth  consists  ? 

What  proportion  does  the  water  bear  to  the  land  1 

Is  the  surface  of  the  earth  even  or  uneven  1 

What  occasions  the  inequality  ? 

How  is  the  earth  represented  in  maps  ? 

What  name  is  given  to  each  of  the  circles  ? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  hemisphere  ? 

Into  how  many  principal  parts  is  the  world  divided  ? 

What  are  their  names  ? 

Which  is  the  smallest  of  them] 

In  which  of  the  hemispheres  is  Europe? 

What  other  parts  of  the  world  are  in  the  same  hemisphere? 

Which  of  them  are  in  the  other  hemisphere  ? 

How  are  rivers  marked  in  maps  ? 

What  is  an  island  ? 

What  is  a  peninsula  ? 

Of  what  are  mountains  composed? 

Where  are  metals  and  minerals  found  ? 

What  is  a  mine  ? 

What  are  volcanoes  ? 

Which  are  the  principal  European  volcanoes  ? 

By  what  means  have  caverns  been  formed  ? 

What  has  been  the  effect  of  torrents  ? 


24  THE    SEA. 


LESSON  V. 

THE    SEA,    RIVERS,    ETC. 

THE  water  which  encompasses  the  land  is  called 
the  sea.  This  purifies  the  earth  from  unwhole- 
some vapours  by  drawing  them  into  itself,  and  it 
is  for  the  most  part  of  vast  depth.  Its  depth, 
however,  is  very  unequal  ;  for,  like  the  surface  of 
the  land,  the  bottom  of  the  sea  consists  of  moun- 
tains and  valleys.  Wonderful  masses  of  rode  are 
often  raised  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  in  which 
little  animals  make  their  habitations. 

As  the  boundless  extent  of  the  sea,  and  its 
majestic  movement,  fill  the  mind  with  delight,  as- 
tonishment, and  awe,  so  in  the  dark,  its  luminous 
appearance  is  inexpressibly  grand.  Very  often 
the  sea,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  seems  to  be  on 
fire.  This  wonderful  appearance  is  produced  by 
very  small  animals,  scarcely  so  big  as  a  pin's  head, 
with  an  extremely  delicate,  transparent,  jelly-like 
body,  mixed  with  others,  called  Medusas  and  Sea- 
nettles,  which  emit  light  from  their  long  feelers, 
while  their  bodies  remain  quite  dark. 

The  saltness  of  the  sea  water  renders  it  less  liable 
to  freeze  than  other  water.  But  the  sea  at  both 


RIVERS,    ETC.  25 

poles,  or  the  north  and  south  points  of  the  earth, 
forms  islands  and  mountains  of  solid  ice,  which 
never  melts,  even  in  the  midst  of  summer. 

All  the  countries  of  the  world  are  supplied  with 
fresh  water,  by  streams  which  run  through  them. 
Larger  streams  are  called  rivers,  and  run  into  the 
sea:  smaller  streams  are  called  rivulets.  Many 
rivers  are  very  broad  and  deep.  When  a  river  is 
so  deep  that  large  ships  can  sail  upon  it,  we  call  it 
a  navigable  river.  The  hollow  in  which  the  water 
of  a  river  flows  is  called  its  channel,  or  bed.  The 
margin  of  the  bed  is  called  the  bank.  In  many 
rivers  there  are  places  where  the  water  tumbles 
over  steep  precipices  to  a  great  depth.  Such 
places  are  called  waterfalls,  or  cataracts.  Pieces 
of  water,  surrounded  by  land,  are  termed  lakes. 
There  are  lakes  more  than  one  hundred  miles  in 
length  and  breadth. 


Questions. 

"What  does  the  bottom  of  the  sea  consist  of  ] 

What  is  the  appearance  of  the  sea  at  night  ? 

By  what  is  this  produced  1 

"Why  is  sea-water  less  liable  to  freeze  than  other  water? 

What  appearance  has  the  sea  at  the  two  poles  of  the  earth  ? 

How  are  the  countries  of  the  world  supplied  with  fresh 
water  ? 

What  names  are  given  to  the  streams  of  fresh  water  ? 

What  is  a  navigable  river  1 

What  are  waterfalls,  or  cataracts  ? 

What  name  is  given  to  large  pieces  of  water  surrounded  by 
land* 

C 


26  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


LESSON  VI. 

THE    ATMOSPHERE THE    WINDS DEW 

FOGS CLOUDS. 

THE  earth  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  air. 
The  air,  with  the  vapours  that  it  contains,  is  called 
the  atmosphere.  The  higher  we  ascend  into  this 
atmosphere,  for  instance,  upon  high  mountains,  the 
more  does  the  air  become  rarefied,  and  the  less 
does  it  press  upon  the  body. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  human 
body  is  equal  to  fifteen  pounds  upon  every  square 
inch  ;  and,  as  a  man's  body  contains,  upon  an 
average,  fifteen  square  feet  of  surface,  he  must 
sustain  a  weight  of  32,400  pounds,  or  sixteen  tons, 
for  his  usual  load.  By  this  enormous  pressure 
we  should  undoubtedly  be  crushed  in  a  moment, 
if  every  part  of  our  body  were  not  filled  either 
with  air,  or  with  some  elastic  fluid,  the  spring 
of  which  is  just  sufficient  to  counteract  the  weight 
of  the  atmosphere.  On  the  tops  of  high  moun- 
tains, the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  considera- 
bly less  than  what  it  usually  is  on  the  plain.  The 
height  to  which  the  atmosphere  extends  is  gene- 
rally supposed  to  be  about  sixty  miles,  above 
which  elevation,  there  are  neither  clouds  nor 
wind,  and  where  the  lightness  of  the  air  would 
render  it  impossible  for  any  animal  to  breathe. 

The  vapours,  which  are  continually  rising  from 


THE  WINDS.  27 

the  earth,  and  from  every  thing  upon  the  earth, 
collect  in  the  atmosphere,  and,  uniting  together, 
produce  rain,  snow,  fog,  and  all  other  changes  of 
weather. 

WINDS. 

The  winds  which  are  continually  blowing  over 
the  earth  are  nothing  but  air  put  in  motion  chiefly 
by  means  of  heat.  When  any  part  of  the  air  is 
heated  by  the  rays  of  the  sun,  or  any  other  cause, 
it  is  expanded  and  becomes  lighter  ;  and  as  the 
lightness  causes  it  to  ascend,  it  leaves  a  partial 
void,  into  which  the  surrounding  air  rushes,  to 
fill  up  the  void  and  restore  the  balance.  For  air, 
like  water  and  every  other  fluid,  never  rests  until 
it  has  found  its  level.  This  simple  process,  the 
effects  of  which  are  very  extensive,  meeting  with 
various  checks  and  interruptions  from  numberless 
obstacles,  causes  those  agitations  of  the  air,  which 
are  called  wind.  When  the  wind  is  violent,  it  is 
called  a  storm,  or  tempest  ;  and  when  it  is  very 
furious,  a  hurricane.  Storms  and  hurricanes  some- 
times break  and  uproot  the  strongest  trees,  over- 
throw houses,  and  lay  waste  large  tracts  of  coun- 
try. 

What  is  commonly  called  a  high  wind,  which 
does  not  amount  to  a  storm,  generally  moves  at 
the  rate  of  about  thirty -five  miles  an  hour  ;  and 
in  a  hurricane  the  velocity  of  the  wind  is  calcu- 
lated at  one  hundred  miles  in  an  hour. 


28  DEW — FOGS. 

DEW. 

Dew  arises  from  the  watery  vapours  which 
ascend  in  the  daytime  from  the  earth,  and,  being 
condensed  by  the  cold  at  night,  fall  down  again. 
When,  therefore,  the  night  is  very  warm,  there 
falls  little  or  no  dew.  When  it  is  so  cold  that 
the  dew  is  frozen,  it  is  then  called  hoar-frost  ; 
and  the  trees  and  grass  appear  as  white  as  if  they 
were  powdered.  The  reason  is  this  :  when  trees 
and  other  bodies  are  extremely  cold,  the  vapours 
falling  upon  them  are  changed  into  particles  of 
ice.  In  very  severe  cold,  even  the  vapours  issuing 
from  our  mouths  are  frozen,  and  fasten  themselves 
in  that  state  to  the  hair,  as  the  dew  does  to  the 
grass. 

FOGS. 

Fogs,  or  mists,  consist  of  watery  particles, 
which  are  raised  into  the  air,  where,  not  being 
completely  dissolved,  they  form  a  vapour,  which 
extends  itself  in  the  lower  part  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  is  so  thick  that  objects  cannot  be  seen 
through  it. 

Fogs  are  more  frequent  in  low,  wet,  and  marshy 
situations,  near  rivers  and  ponds,  than  in  those 
parts  of  a  country  which  are  high  and  dry.  Fogs 
are  much  more  common  in  cold  seasons  and  in 
cold  climates  than  in  such  as  are  warm  ;  because, 
in  the  former,  the  watery  particles,  being  con- 
densed almost  as  soon  as  they  proceed  from  the  sur- 


CLOUDS.  29 

face  of  the  earth,  are  prevented  from  rising  into  the 
higher  parts  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  light  mists  which  are  observed  in  serene 
summer  evenings  are  composed  of  the  same  kind 
of  watery  exhalations,  rendered  visible  by  the 
cooling  of  the  air.  In  winter,  when  it  freezes 
sharply,  rivers  that  are  not  yet  frozen  appear 
to  smoke,  because  the  upper  layers  of  water,  on 
account  of  their  greater  heaviness,  sink  to  the 
bottom,  and  cause  the  warmer  water  below  to 
rise  to  the  top  ;  and  the  particles  rising  from  the 
warmer  water  assume  the  appearance  of  smoke. 

CLOUDS. 

When  vapours  rise  to  a  height  in  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  are  collected  in  a  dense  state,  they  form 
clouds,  which  float  in  the  atmosphere  at  a  greater 
or  less  height,  according  to  their  weight.  As 
the  atmosphere  is  heaviest 'below,  dense  and  thick 
clouds,  which  are  on  the  point  of  melting  into 
rain,  float  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  while 
the  thin  fleecy  clouds  soar  far  above  them.  Both 
kinds  may  be  frequently  seen  at  different  heights 
in  the  atmosphere  at  the  same  time. 

Clouds,  being  formed  of  water,  are  produced 
in  greatest  abundance  where  the  air  has  most 
opportunity  of  acting  upon  water.  Winds,  there- 
fore, which  blow  from  the  east  and  south-east, 
over  the  Atlantic  ocean,  bring  more  clouds  to 
this  country  than  westerly  winds,  which  pass  over 

the  land. 

c  2 


30  CLOUDS. 

The  wonderful  variety  of  colours  displayed 
by  the  clouds,  arises  from  the  different  ways 
in  which  the  sun's  light  is  reflected  among  them. 
Many  of  the  clouds  rise  to  the  height  of  fifteen 
miles  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  but  their 
general  height  is  not  above  a'mile. 


Questions. 

By  what  is  the  globe  of  the  earth  surrounded  ? 

What  general  name  is  given  to  the  air  and  the  vapours 
which  it  contains  ? 

What  is  calculated  to  be  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
upon  a  man's  body  ? 

How  is  this  enormous  pressure  counteracted  ? 

To  what  height  is  the  atmosphere  supposed  to  extend  ? 

What  is  produced  by  the  vapours  that  rise  from  the  earth 
into  the  atmosphere  1 

What  is  wind  1 

What  effect  is  produced  upon  the  air  by  heat? 

What  is  the  consequence  of  the  air  being  rendered  lighter  ? 

What  do  we  call  the  agitations  caused  in  the  air  1 

When  the  wind  is  violent  what  is  it  called  ? 

What  name  do  we  give  to  the  most  furious  winds  ? 

What  are  their  effects  ? 

At  what  rate  does  a  high  wind  move  ? 

What  is  the  velocity  of  the  wind  in  a  hurricane? 

From  what  does  dew  arise  1 

How  is  dew  formed  ? 

When  the  dew  is  frozen  what  is  it  called  ? 

Of  what  do  fogs  consist  ? 

Where  are  fogs  most  frequent? 

When  are  they  most  common  ? 

How  are  clouds  formed  ? . 

Where  are  they  produced  in  greatest  abundance  ? 

What  winds  bring  most  clouds  to  this  country  ? 


EVAPORATION RAIN.  3 1 

What  causes  the  variety  of  colours  in  clouds  ? 

What  is  the  general  height  of  clouds  above  the  earth  ? 

To  what  height  do  they  often  rise  ? 


LESSON  VII. 

EVAPORATION RAIN SNOW HAIL RAINBOW. 

THERE  is  a  process,  according  to  the  wise  de- 
crees of  the  Creator,  constantly  going  on, by  which 
a  portion  of  all  liquids  is  converted  into  steam,  or 
vapour.  This  process  is  called  evaporation.  It  is 
much  greater  in  warm  than  in  cold  climates. 

Now  God  has  provided  that  the  whole  of  the 
water  that  is  raised  by  evaporation  shall  not  subsist 
in  the  atmosphere  at  one  time  in  the  state  of  va- 
pour. A  portion  of  it  is  continually  returning  to  the 
earth,  and  not  a  day  passes  without  rain  falling  in 
some  part  of  the  world.  The  secondary  cause  of 


32  SNOW HAIL. 

rain  is  the  condensation  of  the  clouds  through  the 
effect  of  cold.  When  they  are  greatly  condensed, 
they  become  too  heavy  to  float  in  the  air,  and  de- 
scend in  drops. 

The  cold  of  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere 
is  sometimes  so  great  as  to  freeze  the  particles  which 
form  clouds.  If  the  particles  become  frozen  before 
they  have  had  time  to  unite  into  drops,  they  de- 
scend in  the  shape  of  small  stars  with  six  points  ; 
and  several  of  these,  joined  together,  form  flaky 
masses,  which  are  called  snow. 

The  quantity  of  matter  contained  in  snow  is 
small  in  proportion  to  its  bulk.  Snow,  therefore, 
meets  with  great  resistance  in  passing  through  the 
atmosphere,  and  consequently  falls  very  slowly. 
Its  great  surface,  also,  renders  it  very  susceptible 
of  evaporation,  which  considerably  diminishes  its 
weight,  even  in  the  coldest  weather. 

If  the  cold  is  so  moderate  as  to  allow  the  particles 
of  water  to  unite  into  drops  before  freezing  takes 
place,  they  form  pieces  of  ice  called  hail.  Hail,  when 
first  formed,  is  not  larger  than  the  drops  of  water 
which  fall  in  rain  ;  and,  being  formed  from  a  fluid, 
it  must  be  perfectly  round  ;  but  when  it  arrives  at 
the  earth  it  is  often  sharp-cornered,  and  as  large  as 
nuts,  or  even  as  hens'  eggs.  In  these  cases,  either 
the  particles  composing  such  hailstones  have  begun 
to  dissolve,  or  they  were  sufficiently  cold  to  con- 
geal and  attach  to  their  surface  the  particles  with 
which  they  came  in  contact  during  their  fall. 

If,  when  the  sun  is  shining,  a  shower  of  rain  falls 


RAINBOW ELECTRICITY,  33 

either  around  or  at  some  distance  before  us,  we 
may  see  in  the  air  opposite  to  the  sun  a  large  bow, 
of  bright  and  beautiful  colours,  which  is  called  a 
rainbow.  This  striking  appearance  is  caused  by  the 
sun's  rays  being  refracted,  or  broken,  in  the  falling 
drops.  The  uppermost  colour  of  the  rainbow  is  red, 
and  the  lowest  violet.  The  moon  also  sometimes 
shows  a  rainbow,  formed  by  the  refraction  of  her 
rays  in  drops  of  rain  during  the  night :  but  this 
appearance,  called  the  lunar  rainbow,  is  very  rare* 


Questions, 

Where  is  evaporation  most  copious  ? 
How  is  rain  produced  ? 
What  is  snow  ? 

Why  does  snow  fall  so  slowly  T 
What  is  hail  ? 

What  produces  the  appearance  called  the  rainbow  T 
What  name  is  given  to  the  rainbow  formed  by  the  moca's 
rays! 


LESSON  VIII. 

ELECTRICITY THUNDER  AND  LIGHTNING. 

GOD  has  also  provided  a  matter,  respecting 
which  we  know  little  more  than^  that  it  commu- 
nicates to  certain  bodies  the  power  sometimes 
of  attracting,  and  sometimes  repelling,  other  bo- 
dies. At  the  same  time  a  spark  of  light  appears, 
a  snapping  noise  is  heard,  and  a  shock  is  commu- 
nicated. This  matter  is  called  electricity. 


34  THUNDER LIGHTNING. 

When,  for  example,  a  glass  tube  is  rubbed 
with  a  woollen  cloth  ;  small  pieces  of  paper, 
straw,  feathers,  or  other  light  bodies  held  over 
it,,  will  be  drawn  towards  the  tube,  and  driven 
from  it.  If  you  put  your  finger  to  this  tube  in 
the  dark,  you  see  a  spark,  hear  a  snap,  and  feel 
a  slight  pricking  in  the  finger.  If  you  rub  the 
tube  hard  for  some  time,  and  then  hold  it  near 
your  face,  you  feel  a  sensation,  as  if  a  cobweb 
was  spread  upon  your  check.  Similar  effects 
are  produced  by  other  substances  when  they  are 
rubbed  ;  such  as  amber,  sulphur,  porcelain,  and 
sealing-wax. 

The  observation  of  these  facts  led  to  the  con- 
struction of  a  machine,  by  which  electricity  can 
easily  be  produced,  and  which  is  called  the  elec- 
trical machine.  By  means  of  this  machine, 
sparks  have  been  produced  of  such  power  as, 
in  an  instant,  to  melt  metals  and  to  kill  animals. 
This  electric  matter  subsists  in  the  clouds  called 
thunder-clouds,  from  which  it  issues  in  the  form 
of  flashes  of  fire,  which  are  called  lightning. 
The  noise  which  usually  follows  the  flash,  or 
the  lightning,  we  call  thunder. 

The  electric  flame,  which  we  call  lightning, 
when  it  strikes  a  tree  or  a  house,  either  damages 
or  destroys  it  entirely,  or  sets  it  on  fire.  If  it 
strikes  men  or  beasts,  it  either  stuns,  maims,  or 
kills  them.  God,  however,  in  his  mercy,  generally 
protects  his  creatures  from  harm  ;  and  in  the 
benefits  that  attend  thunder-storms  compensates 


IGNIS-FATITUS.  35 

any  mischief  they  do.  Thunder-storms  cool  the 
atmosphere  and  purify  it  from  noxious  vapours. 
The  rain  which  usually  accompanies  thunder  and 
lightning  promotes  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and 
the  growth  of  plants. 

Men  have  a  contrivance  for  securing  build- 
ings from  the  effects  of  lightning.  A  long  iron 
rod,  called  a  lightning-conductor,  is  erected  close 
to  the  house,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  lower 
end  reaches  into  moist  earth,  and  the  upper  rises 
above  the  ridge  of  the  roof.  A  rod  of  this  kind 
attracts  the  electric  matter,  and  conducts  it  down 
to  the  earth  without  injury  to  the  building.  A 
house  surrounded  by  tall  trees  is  rarely  struck  by 
lightning,  because  the  lightning  is  attracted  by  the 
trees.  Remember  not  to  take  shelter  under  trees 
during  a  thunder-storm. 

O  Sound  is  transmitted  at  the  rate  of  1142  feet, 
or  380  yards,  in  a  second ;  the  distance  of  light- 
ning may  therefore  be  calculated,'  by  accurately 
observing  the  time  which  intervenes  between 
the  flash,  and  the  thunder  which  follows  it. 

IGNIS-FATUUS FALLING  STARS AURORA 

BOREALIS. 

We  have  all  heard  of  lights,  commonly  called 
Will-with-a-wisp,  or  Jack-with-a-lantern,  but 
known  to  scientific  men  by  the  name  of  ignis^ 
fatuus.  These  lights  are  seen  most  frequently 


36  FALLING  STARS, 

in  mines,  in  marshy  places,  and  near  stagnating 
waters.  They  consist  of  vapours,  which,  taking 
fire,  appear  bright  so  long  as  they  burn.  They 
move  about  with  a  dancing  motion,  and  have 
sometimes  caused  serious  accidents,  by  misleading 
persons  who  have  followed  them  in  the  dark, 
under  the  idea  that  they  were  lanterns  carried 
by  passengers. 

Balls  of"  fire  sometimes  descend  from  the  upper 
region  of  the  atmosphere.  When  they  fall,  they 
look  precisely  like  stars  dropping  from  the  sky  ; 
they  shoot  along  with  great  rapidity,  and  some- 
times leave  behind  them,  in  the  air,  a  reddish 
line,  which  gradually  disappears.  Sometimes 
their  motion  is  attended  with  a  hissing  sound, 
and  they  burst  with  a  loud  noise.  Their  light 
is  of  dazzling  brightness.  They  have  been  often 
observed,  but  the  nature  and  cause  of  them  are 
not  satisfactorily  known. 

Sometimes  at  night  there  is  to  be  seen,  in  the 
northern  quarter  of  the  heavens,  a  bright  light, 
like  the  morning  aurora,  or  day-break,  from 
which  rays  issue,  and  which  spreads  itself  by 
degrees  over  a  great  part  of  the  firmament. 
The  whole  of  the  heavens  at  length  appear  quite 
red  and  fiery,  and  exhibit  a  most  beautiful  sight. 
This  appearance  is  called  the  northern  light, 
or  aurora  borealis ;  and  it  is,  like  lightning, 
an  effect  of  electricity.  It  has  never  done  mis 
chief  of  any  kind. 


DIFFERENT  RACES  OF  MANKIND.  37 

"  Questions. 

In  what  form  does  the  matter  called 'electric  show  itself? 

How  may  it  be  produced  ? 

What  other  substances  exhibit  similar  effects  1 

What  is  the  nature  of  lightning1? 

What  do  we  call  the  noise  that  follows  the  flash  ? 

W^hat  is  the  effect  of  lightning  when  it  strikes  an  object  ? 

In  what  respect  are  thunder-storms  beneficial  1 

How  may  buildings  be  secured  from  injury  by  lightning? 

Why  is  a  house  surrounded  by  high  trees  rarely  struck  by 
lightning  ? 

Is  it  then  prudent  or  imprudent  to  take  shelter  under  trees 
in  a  thunder-storm  1 

How  may  the  distance  of  lightning  be  calculated  ? 

On  what  principle  is  that  calculation  made  ? 

What  is  the  ignis-fatuus,  or  Will-with-a-wisp  ? 

W^here  is  it  most  frequently  seen  1 

What  does  it  consist  of ? 

What  kind  of  motion  has  it ! 

What  are  the  bodies  commonly  called  falling  stars  ? 

What  appearance  have  they  ? 

Is  their  motion  ever  attended  with  any  sound  ? 

What  kind  of  appearance  is  the  aurora  borealis  or  northern 
light? 

What  is  the  cause  of  it  1 


LESSON  IX. 

DIFFERENT  RACES  OF  MANKIND. 

THE  whole  world  is  supposed  to  contain  about 
700  millions  of  human  inhabitants.  Of  those, 
such  as  dwell  together  in  a  country,  and  are  of 
the  same  general  structure,  colour,  language,  and 
manners,  form  one  people,  or  nation. 

Each  of  the  principal  divisions  of  the  world  is 
D 


38  DIFFERENT    RACES    OF    MEN. 

subdivided  into  smaller  portions,  called  countries . 
there  are  various  nations  in  each  of  the  great 
divisions  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America, 
and  Australia ;  but  all  the  different  people  in 
the  world  bear  some  resemblance  to  each  other, 
either  in  shape,  colour,  look,  or  mode  of  life. 

We  believe,  on  the  authority  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  that  all  the  races  of  mankind,  scat- 
tered over  the  surface  of  the  globe,  notwithstand- 
ing the  differences  that  the  observer  may  at  once 
discover  between  them,  are  descended  from  one 
pair.  We  believe,  on  the  same  authority,  that 
the  whole  earth  was  overspread  by  the  descend- 
ants of  three  sons  of  Noah.  The  influence  of 
climate,  food,  and  civilization,  particular  modes 
of  life,  and  a  variety  of  causes  have,  however, 
produced  many  and  striking  diversities  in  the 
outward  appearance  of  the  human  form. 

Those  persons  whom  we ,  term  naturalists,  be- 
cause they  devote  particular  attention  to  the 
study  of  nature  in  all  its  branches,  divide  man- 
kind into  several  principal  races  ; — as,  the  Polar, 
or  Lapland  race  ;  the  Mongol,  or  Tartar  ;  the 
Negro,  or  Ethiopian  ;  the  Red,  or  Copper- 
coloured  ;  and  the  White  race. 


Questions. 

How  many  inhabitants  are  there  supposed  to  be  in  the 
world? 

What  constitutes  a  nation  1 

Have  we  authority  to  believe  that  the  different  nations  of  the 
world  tave  sprung  from  more  than  one  pair  1 


THE    POLAR    RACE.  39 

W  hat  causes  have  produced  the  striking  differences  observ- 
able in  the  various  races  of  mankind  ? 

Into  what  principal  races  are  mankind  generally  divided  ? 


The  Tchuktchi.    (Siberian*.) 

LESSON  X. 

THE    POLAR   RACE. 

ALL  the  northern  parts  of  the  two  hemispheres, 
into  which  the  globe  is  divided,  are  peopled  by 
nations  belonging  to  the  Polar  race,  who  are  very 
dark,  having  a  flat  visage,  and  black  hair  and 
eyes.  They  are  thick  in^form,  and  extremely 
short  in  stature.  To  this  race  belong  the  Lapland- 
ers, in  Europe;  the  Samoyedes,  the  Ostiaks,  the 
Tchuktchi,  and  the  Kamtsehadales,  in  Asia ;  the 
Greenlanders  and  the  Esquimaux,  in  America. 
The  inhabitants  of  Finland  resemble  those  nations 
in  almost  every  circumstance,  excepting  their 
height,  which  nearly  equals  that  of  other  Europe- 
ans. Living  under  a  severe  climate,  and  subsisting 
on  particular  kinds  of  food,  their  stature  seems  to 


40  THE    POLAR    RACE. 

have  been  affected  by  the  hardness  of  their  fare,  as 
well  as  their  complexion  by  the  intense  cold. 

The  natural  productions  of  the  countries  in- 
habited by  these  people  being  few,  and  the  con- 
veniences of  life  difficult  to  be  procured,  all  their 
efforts  and  study  are  directed  to  the  supply  of  the 
most  urgent  wants,  the  incessant  recurrence  of 
which  leaves  them  no  leisure  for  the  improvement 
of  their  minds.  Their  manners,  therefore,  are  as 
uncultivated  as  their  appearance  is  uncouth.  The 
tallest  among  them  seldom  exceed  the  height  of 
five  feet,  and  many  are  not  more  than  four.  They 
are  of  disagreeable  look,  having  broad  faces,  with 
short  flat  noses,  eyes  of  a  yellowish  brown,  high 
cheek-bones,  thick  lips,  and,  in  general,  a  weak  and 
effeminate  voice.  They  have  large  heads,  lank 
black  hair,  and  dark-brown  complexions. 

The  resemblance  of  manners  among  these  north- 
ern tribes,  is  not  less  remarkable  than  their  simi- 
larity in  stature,  complexion,  and  features.  They 
are  extremely  ignorant,  and  have  few  religious 
ideas.  Being  totally  unacquainted  with  the  arts 
of  civilized  life,  they  covet  none  of  its  conve- 
niences or  luxuries ;  they  are  immoderately  fond  of 
tobacco  and  spirituous  liquors,  which  they  procure 
from  their  southern  neighbours,  in  exchange  for 
the  furs  of  various  animals,  the  hunting  of  which 
is  one  of  their  chief  employments. 

Though  these  people  are  strangers  to  every  art 
and  science,  and  appear  to  be  incapable  of  any 
vigorous  efforts  either  of  body  or  mind,  they 


THE    POLAR    RACE.  41 

nevertheless  display  considerable  ingenuity  when 
stimulated  by  necessity;  as  well  as  great  strength, 
activity,  and  courage,  when  difficulties  or  dangers 
call  for  the  occasional  exercise  of  those  qualities. 
Providence,  in  withholding  from  the  people  of 
these  northern  countries  the  many  blessings  enjoy- 
ed by  the  inhabitants  of  more  temperate  regions, 
has  given  them  a  contented  disposition :  and  so 
strongly  are  they  attached  to  their  native  land, 
consisting  in  general  of  immense  tracts  of  moun- 
tains and  morasses,  that  they  cannot  reconcile 
themselves  to  any  other  situation,  or  to  a  residence 
in  a  different  part  of  the  world. 


Questions. 

What  are  the  countries  inhabited  by  the  Polar  race? 

Which  are  the  principal  nations  of  this  race  1 

Are  they  tall  or  short  ? 

How  do  they  look  ? 

What  is  their  complexion  1  '«< 

How  are  they  chiefly  employed  1 


42  THE    MONGOL    RACE. 


LESSON  XL 

THE    MONGOL    RACE. 

THE  second  great  variety  in  the  human  species 
is  the  Mongol  race,  to  which  belong  most  of  the 
people  we  call  Tartars;  as  the  Mongols,  the  Mant- 
chous,  the  Calmucks.  Tartary  comprises  the 
whole  of  Central  Asia,  and  is  peopled  by  numerous 
tribes,  which,  though  somewhat  different  in  fea- 
tures and  complexion,  retain  those  particular  traits 
of  resemblance  by  which  the  whole  race  is  distin- 
guished from  any  other  nation.  All  the  Tartars 
have  the  face  broad  and  wrinkled,  even  in  youth ; 
the  lower  part  narrow,  and  inclining  to  a  point  at 
the  chin.  They  have  a  flat  forehead,  a  short  flat 
nose,  high  cheek-bones,  thick  eyebrows,  small 
oblique  eyes,  thick  lips,  and  a  colour  more  or  less 
yellow.  They  are  of  middle  stature,  strong,  ro- 
bust, and  healthy. 

All  the  tribes  of  Tartars  lead  a  wandering  life. 


THE  MONGOL  RACE.  43 

They  build  no  towns,  neither  do  they  cultivate 
the  ground,  except  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a 
grain  called  millet.  They  live  in  tents  covered 
with  the  skins  of  animals.  Their  chief  food  is 
horses'  or  camels'  flesh,  which  they  often  eat  raw, 
and  their  usual  drink  is  camels'  milk.  Their  prin- 
cipal wealth  consists  in  horses,  in  the  management 
and  care  of  which  great  part  of  their  time  is  em- 
ployed. They  practice  robbery  as  a  profession, 
and  think  it  neither  criminal  nor  dishonourable, 
provided  that  it  be  exercised  on  people  of  a  dif- 
ferent tribe.  Some  of  the  Tartars  are  Mohamedans ; 
some  are  followers  of  a  mock  deity  called  the 
Grand  Lama,  who  is  worshipped  as  a  divinity; 
while  others  of  these  wandering  tribes  appear  to 
have  scarcely  any  religious  ideas  beyond  a  ge- 
neral belief  in  a  Supreme  Being. 

In  the  Mongol  race  are  included  the  natives  of 
China  and  Japan.  The  features  and  the  general 
cast  of  countenance  of  these  people  show  that 
they  are  of  Tartar  origin  ;  whilst  the  difference  in 
their  manners,  customs,  and  habits  of  life,  is  the 
effect  of  a  certain  degree  of  civilization  and  of  the 
moral  influence  of  political  institutions. 

Travellers  are  of  opinion,  that  not  only  the 
Tartars,  the  Chinese,  and  the  Japanese,  but  all  the 
inhabitants  of  India  beyond  the  river  Ganges,  have 
one  common  origin,  and  belong  to  the  same  race. 
The  natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  and  of  the 
great  continent  of  New  Holland  are  of  Malay 
origin.  Those  who  live  in  the  hottest  of  those 


44 


THE    MONGOL    RACE. 


islands  are  almost  as  black  as  negroes  ;  such,  among 
others,  are  the  Papous  of  New  Guinea. 


Questions. 

What  nations  belong  to  the  Mongol  race  ? 
Where  is  Tartary  situated  ? 

What  are  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  Tartars  ? 
What  kind  of  life  do  they  lead  ? 
What  are  their  dwellings  1 
What  is  their  chief  food  1 
What  does  their  chief  property  consist  of? 
What  profession  do  they  follow  1 

What  other  nations  besides  the  Tartar  belong  to  the  Mon- 
gol race? 


THE    NEGRO    RACE.  45 


Negroes. 

LESSON  XII. 

THE    NEGRO    RACE. 

THE  negroes,  or  blacks,  form  the  third  and  most 
distinct  race  of  mankind.  They  inhabit  all  the 
coasts  of  South  Africa,  from  the  river  Senegal  to 
the  Red  Sea.  Indeed,  it  is  believed,  that  the  in- 
terior also  of  that  extensive  tract  of  country  is 
occupied  by  the  black-complexioned  race,  with  the 
exception  of  Abyssinia,  the  inhabitants  of  which 
are  olive-coloured. 

The  negroes  are  not  more  remarkable  for  their 
jet-black  colour,  than  for  the  delicate  smoothness 
of  their  skin.  They  have  deep  hazel  eyes,  a  short 
flat  nose,  thick  lips,  long  muzzle,  prominent  cheek- 
bones, beautifully  white  teeth,  and  crisp,  short, 
woolly  hair.  The  natives  of  Guinea  are  accounted 
the  ugliest  of  the  black  tribes,  and  those  of  Congo 
and  Mosambique  the  handsomest'  Further  south- 
ward they  become  a  little  paler,  and  take  the  name 


46  THE    NEGRO    RACE. 

of  Caffres.  Almost  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  east 
coast  of  Africa  belong  to  this  variety.  The  Hot- 
tentots, found  in  the  most  southern  point,  form 
another  subdivision.  They  have  cheek-bones  so 
prominent,  that  the  face  appears  almost  triangular. 
Their  colour  is  a  brown  olive. 

It  was  among  these  black  nations  that  the  people 
of  Europe  for  several  centuries  purchased  human 
beings,  whom  they  carried  away  to  be  employed 
as  slaves  in  the  cultivation  of  the  land  in  their 
American  colonies.  Our  own  nation  was  the  first 
to  give  up  this  barbarous  traffic,  an  example  that  has 
been  followed  in  almost  all  the  civilized  countries. 


Questions. 

What  are  the  countries  inhabited  by  the  negroes  1 

What  are  they  distinguished  by  1 

Which  are  accounted  the  ugliest  of  the  black  tribes  1 

Which  are  the  handsomest  ? 

What  nations  in  the  southernmost  part  of  Africa,  though 
not  quite  black,  belong  to  this  variety? 

For  what  purpose  were  slaves  purchased  by  the  Europeans 
among  these  black  nations? 

What  country  first  jrave  up  this  trade  ? 


THE    RED,   OR    COPPER-COLOURED    RACE. 


An  American  Indian. 

LESSON  XIII. 

THE    RED,    OR    COPPER-COLOURED    RACE. 

THE  original  natives  of  America  form  a  fourth 
race,  not  less  different  in  colour,  than  distinct  in 
habitation,  from  the  rest  of  mankind.  All  the 
savage  tribes  of  this  vast  continent,  with  the  ex- 
ception, as  we  have  seen,  of  the  Esquimaux,  are 
of  a  red,  or  copper  colour.  In  the  old  world  (that 
is,  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa)  diversity  of  cli- 
mate never  fails  to  produce  difference  of  complex- 
ion ;  but  among  the  original  tribes  of  America, 
(called  the  new  world,  because  it  was  not  discover- 
ed by  the  Europeans  till  about  350  years  ago,)  that 
effect  is  not  so  perceptible :  so  that,  among  its 
various  nations,  there  is  scarcely  any  difference  in 
colour,  and  less  than  might  be  expected  in  the 
shape  of  the  body  and  the  features  of  the  face. 
They  have  all  high  cheek-bones,  small  noses  and 
eyes,  thickf  black,  coarse  hair,  and  remarkably 
thin  beards.  Both  men  and  women  paint  their 


48        THE    RED,    OR    COPPER-COLOURED    RACE. 

bodies  and  their  faces ;  and,  among  some  of  the 
tribes,  fashion  and  taste  in  this  method  of  decoration 
seem  to  be  as  muctj  studied  as  in  the  various  modes 
of  dress  among  civilized  nations. 

Towards  the  southern  point  of  America  is  found 
the  tallest  race  of  men  in  the  world,  called  Patago- 
nians.  Earlier  travellers  represented  them  as  real 
giants,  but  according  to  later  observations,  their 
average  height  is  between  six  and  seven  feet. 

The  native  Americans  are  said  to  be  more  back- 
ward in  facing  danger  than  the  people  of  Europe ; 
but,  no  sooner  does  it  appear  unavoidable,  than 
their  *  courage  is  excited  to  the  highest  pitch. 
They  are  then  ready  to  suffer  or  to  inflict  the  most 
cruel  tortures;  and,  either  through  native  fortitude, 
or  the  influence  of  custom  and  education,  they  dis- 
play the,  utmost  composure  amidst  the  greatest 
agonies.  To  conquered  enemies  they  are  invari- 
ably cruel,  though  kind  and  just  to  persons  of  their 
own  tribe.  They  are  grave  and  serious  in  their 
deportment. 

Though  many  of  the  tribes  of  the  Americans 
are  equal  in  stature  to  the  Europeans,  they  are  not 
so  muscular  and  strong,  probably  owing  to  the 
climate,  together  with  the  scantiness  or  the  bad 
quality  of  their  food.  Most  of  these  people  lead  a 
wandering  life,  Subsisting  on  the  animals  which 
they  kill  in  hunting,  on  fish,  and  on  wild  fruits  and 
roots. 

Patience  and  sincerity,  indolence  and  rapacity, 
warm  attachment  to  friends  and  implacable  hatred 


THE    RED,    OR    COPPER-COLOURED    RACE.        49 

to  enemies,  mark  the  character  of  the  savage  in 
every  part  of  the  world. 


Questions, 

Where  is  the  red,  or  copper-coloured  race,  found1? 
Is  there  much  difference   in  colour,  shape,  and  features, 
among  the  various  savage  nations  of  America1? 
What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  face  1 

fWhat  peculiar  method  have  they  of  adorning  their  bodies  1 
Where  do  we  meet  with  the  tallest  race  of  men  in  the 
world  ? 

What  are  they  called  ? 

What  is  their  average  height? 

WThat  are  the  principal  features  in  the  moral  character  of 
the  native  Americans  1 

To  what  cause  is  their  inferiority  in  strength  to  Europeans 
attributable  1 

What  kind  of  life  do  they  lead  7 

How  do  they  subsist  1 


E 


50 


THE    WHITE    RACE. 


The  English. 

LESSON  XIV. 

; 

THE    WHITE    RACE. 

A  FIFTH  and  last  great  division  of  mankind  is 
the  white  race,  with  oval  face,  long  hair,  and 
pointed  nose.  It  comprehends  the  people  of  Eu- 
rope, and  some  of  the  adjacent  countries ;  for  in- 
stance, the  Turks,  the  Circassians,  and  other  tribes 
about  Mount  Caucasus,  the  Persians,  the  natives 
of  Hindoostan,  the  Arabians,  the  Moors,  who  in- 
habit the  north  of  Africa,  and  the  Abyssinians,  as 
well  as  the  Jews. 

In  countries  of  such  extent,  there  is  considerable 
variety  of  complexion  and  countenance :  in  the 
north,  the  people  are  larger  and  fairer,  with  light 
hair,  and  blue  eyes;  whereas,  in  the  south  they 
are  dark,  often  very  brown,  and  have  black  hair 
and  eyes.  There  is  an  intermixture  of  these 


THE    WHITE    RACE.  51 

colours  in  the  more  temperate  regions.  As  this 
appears  to  us  to  be  the  most  comely  of  all  the 
varieties,  so  it  also  surpasses  the  others  in  courage 
and  activity,  and  in  the  arts  and  sciences. 

It  seems  that  climate  has  a  great  influence  on 
the  human  complexion :  yet  the  mode  of  life,  and 
the  general  tendency  in  children  to  resemble  their 
parents,  contribute  not  a  little  to  effects  which  are 
often  attributed  to  the  former  cause  alone.  The 
Circassians,  for  instance,  the  handsomest  people  in 
the  world,  live  under  the  same  climate  as  the  Tar- 
tars, who  fall  exceedingly  short  of  the  standard  of 
European  beauty ;  and  the  Abyssinians  are  olive- 
coloured,  while  they  are  almost  surrounded  by 
nations  of  the  blackest  hue. 


Questions. 

What  are  the  personal  characteristics  of  the  white  race  ? 

What  nations  does  it  comprehend  1 

What  differences  are  observable  between  the  northern  and 
southern  nations  of  this  race  ? 

In  what  moral  qualities  does  it  surpass  the  other  races  ? 

What  people  are  accounted  the  handsomest  in  the  world? 

In  what  respect  do  the  people  of  Abyssinia  differ  from  the 
surrounding  African  nations  1 


52  SAVAGE    AND    CIVILIZED    NATIONS. 

LESSON  XV. 

SAVAGE,    PASTORAL,    AND    CIVILIZED    NATIONS. 

IN  regard  to  their  mode  of  life,  the  different 
nations  of  the  world  have  many  points  of  resem- 
blance. Some  of  them,  which  are  called  savage 
nations,  take  no  trouble  to  ensure  a  regular  sub- 
sistence. They  neither  plant  nor  sow;  they  lay 
up  no  store  of  provisions ;  they  give  themselves 
no  concern  about  the  future,  but  go  in  quest  of 
food  only  when  they  are  urged  by  hunger.  Their 
sole  employments,  therefore,  are  hunting  and  fish- 
ing. They  do  not  even  dwell  together  in  villages; 
have  no  fixed  habitations,  but  only  wretched  huts, 
consisting  of  a  few  poles,  thrust  into  the  ground, 
and  covered  with  skins  of  animals,  coarse  felt,  or 
only  the  large  leaves  of  trees.  Some  even  live  in 
holes  under  the  surface  of  the  ground;  and  among 
these  savage  nations  only  a  few  families  in  general 
associate  together.  These  have  no  common  head^ 
and  no  magistrates ;  but,  in  time  of  war,  or  on  oc- 
casion of  a  great  hunt,  they  have  a  leader,  whom 
they  obey  till  the  war  or  the  hunt  is  over. 

Other  nations,  called  Pastoral  Nations,  or  No- 
mades,  from  their  wandering  way  of  life,  have  no 
fixed  abodes,  but  only  tents  or  huts,  which  they 
easily  take  down  and  set  up  again ";  but  they  are 
much  more  intelligent  and  less  rude  than  the  sa- 
vage tribes,  because  they  are  engaged  in  rearing 
cattle — a  pursuit  which  requires  much  more  atten- 


CIVILIZED  NATIONS.  53 

tion  and  skill  than  hunting.  Their  herds  and  flocks 
are  their  only  wealth.  They  move  about  from  place 
to  place,  and  make  a  longer  or  shorter  stay  only  in 
situations  where  they  meet  with  good  pasturage. 

Other  nations,  which  are  called  civilized  nations, 
(such  are  all  those  of  Europe,)  employ  themselves 
not  only  in  rearing  cattle,  but  also  in  agriculture, 
and  in  all  kinds  of  arts  and  handicraft  business. 
They  dwell  together  in  communities,  in  permanent 
and  commodious  habitations,  forming  cities,  towns, 
and  villages.  These  communities  consist  of  persons 
of  various  classes,  namely,  princes,  nobility,  gentry, 
citizens,  farmers,  artisans,  and  others  who  follow 
all  sorts  of  trades,  professions,  arts,  and  sciences. 

Civilized  nations  live  according  to  laws ;  that  is 
to  say,  they  have  agreed  among  themselves  what 
it  shall  be  lawful  or  unlawful  for  each  person  to 
do  ;  and  all  who  wish  to  dwell  among  them  must 
promise  to  submit  to  these  laws  and  to  obey  them. 
To  enforce  this  obedience,  even  on  the  part  of 
the  most  ignorant  and  the  worst  disposed,  they  se- 
lect a  certain  number  of  intelligent  and  upright 
men,  to  cause  obedience  to  be  paid  to  the  laws, 
and  to  punish  offenders.  The  persons  so  charged 
are  called  magistrates. 

In  many  states  a  single  individual  possesses  a 
right  to  make  laws  and  to  appoint  the  magistrates. 
This  person  is  called  the  sovereign,  or  monarch 
and  has  the  title  of  emperor,  king,  prince,  or 
duke.  The  countries  which  are  under  his  govern- 
ment constitute  his  dominions.  A  state  in  which 


54  CIVILIZED  NATIONS. 

there  is  no  single  person  supreme,  but  all  have  a 
voice  in  making  the  laws  by  which  they  are  go- 
verned, is  called  a  republic. 

The  form  of  government  subsisting  in  the  United 
States  is  called  a  republic  ;  the  supreme  head  being 
the  president.  From  the  circumstance  of  its  being 
composed  of  separate  states,  it  is  called  a  confede- 
rated or  federal  republic. 


Questions. 

Which  are  the  only  employments  of  savage  nations  ? 

What  sort  of  habitations  do  they  construct  ? 

Are  they  under  any  kind  of  government  1 

What  sort  of  abodes  have  the  pastoral,  or  wandering  na- 
tions ? 

What  pursuit  are  they  engaged  in  ? 

How  are  the  civilized  nations  employed  1 

What  sort  of  habitations  have  they  ? 

How  are  they  governed  1 

What  are  those  persons  called  whose  duty  it  is  to  enforce 
obedience  to  the  laws  1 

When  one  person  is  invested  with  the  supreme  authority, 
by  what  title  is  he  known  ? 

What  are  the  countries  under  his  government  called  1 

What  is  a  republic  1 

What  is  the  form  of  government  established  in  the  United 
States  1 

What  is  the  title  of  its  head? 

Why  is  it  called  a  federal  government? 


THE 

THREE  KINGDOMS  OF  NATURE. 

PART    THE    FIRST. 
LESSON  I. 

NATURAL  OBJECTS  IN  GENERAL. 

THE  earth,  the  air,  and  the  waters,  are  filled 
with  living  and  inanimate  objects.  The  more 
we  examine  these,  and  the  wider  our  knowledge 
of  them  extends,  the  more  do  we  learn  of  the 
wisdom,  the  power,  and  the  providential  care  of 
our  Maker  and  Preserver. 

Nothing  has  been  created  in  vain,  for  every 
thing  we  can  see  is  filled  with  beauty  and  de- 
sign. The  same  care  has  been  bestowed  on  the 
structure  of  the  most  minute  beings,  as  on  that 
of  the  largest  animal,  and  every  step  in  the  study 
of  nature  is  full  of  interest  and  instruction.  We 
cannot  look  any  where  without  finding  something 
to  admire,  something  to  astonish  and  delight  us, 
and  something  to  make  us  sensible  of  the  good- 
ness and  bounty  of  God. 

Some  of  these  objects,  such  as  man,  beasts, 
birds,  fishes,  and  insects,  live  and  move,  and  are 
said  to  have  animal  life  r  others,  as  trees,  plants, 
grain,  flowers,  and  moss,  have  also  life,  but  it  is 
life  of  a  different  kind,  and  called  vegetable  life  ; 
whilst  others,  as  stones,  chalk,  coal,  and  earth, 

55 


56  NATURAL  OBJECTS  IN  GENERAL. 

have  no  life,  and  therefore  called  inanimate 
objects,  that  is,  objects  without  life. 

Every  thing  which  "  lives  and  moves,  and  has 
a  being,"  does  so  by  the  direct  and  mysterious 
laws  of  God,  which  we  can  neither  understand 
nor  imitate.  These  are  called  natural  objects, 
or  the  "productions  of  nature;"  terms  by  which 
we  distinguish,  them  from  the  works  of  man, 
which  are  called  "productions  of  art." 

The  productions  of  nature  are  not  alike  in  all 
countries,  as  their  growth  and  existence  depend 
in  some  measure  on  climate.  Some  countries  are 
very  hot  all  the  year  round,  others  are  very  cold, 
and  others  neither  very  hot  nor  very  cold,  but  tem- 
perate. This  difference  of  climate  makes  the  soil 
vary  in  its  degrees  of  productiveness.  Many 
useful  things,  therefore,  which  plentifully  grow 
in  one  country,  are  not  found  in  another  ;  and  this 
has  led  the  people  of  different  countries  to  buy 
and  sell  with  each  other,  exchanging  such  articles 
as  they  do  not  want  amongst  themselves,  for  others 
which  they  stand  in  need  of.  By  this  means  the 
productions  of  nature  are  spread  over  the  whole 
world,  for  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  man. 


Questions. 

With  what  are  the  earth,  the  air,  the  waters  filled  ? 
Which  of  these  objects  have  animal  life  ? 
Is  there  any  other  kind  of  life  ?     Name  it. 
What  objects  have  no  life,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
Are  all  countries  equally  productive  ? 
How  is  this  difference  accounted  for  ? 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM.  57 

LESSON  II. 

THE  THREE  KINGDOMS  OF  NATURE. 

>•  ALL  objects  with  which  we  are  acquainted  have 
been  arranged  by  naturalists  in  three  divisions, 
called  the  "  kingdoms  of  nature."  These  are, 
first,  the  animal  kingdom;  second,  the  vegetable, 
kingdom;  and,  third,  the  mineral  kingdom. 

The  animal  kingdom  is  so  named  because 
every  thing  which  it  includes  possesses  animal 
life,  that  is,  it  can  move  and  feel.  This  king- 
dom is  already  known  to  contain  upwards  of 
twenty-three  thousand  different  species,  or  kinds 
of  animals.  The  forms  and  sizes  of  these  animals 
are  exceedingly  varied  ;  and  they  are  found  in 
great  abundance  on  the  earth,  in  the  air,  and  in 
the  waters.  Some  are  so  small  as  to  require 
the  aid  of  a  microscope  to  discover  them  ;  others, 
as  the  elephant  and  the  whale,  excite  our  wonder 
by  their  magnitude  and  strength,  whilst  others 
delight  us  by  the  beauty  of  their  colours,  or  the 
elegance  of  their  shapes. 

The  vegetable  kingdom,  which  includes  trees, 
plants,  shrubs,  grasses,  and  mosses,  is  so  named 
from  the  objects  embraced  by  it  having  what  is 
termed  vegetable  life,  that  is,  they  do  live,  but 
can  neither  move  nor  feel.  A  plant  lives  and 
dies  in  the  very  same  place  it  first  took  root,  and 
shows  no  signs  of  being  sensible  to  injury.  This 


58  ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM. 

kingdom  is  known  to  contain  as  many  as  fifty 
thousand  different  species. 

The  mineral  kingdom  includes  all  those  na- 
tural objects  which  have  no  life,  such  as  stones, 
earths,  metals,  and  many  others.  This  kingdom 
contains  about  two  hundred  and  seventy  species. 

We  are  thus  already  acquainted  with  upwards 
of  seventy-three  thousand  different  kinds  of  ob- 
jects, the  whole  of  which  come  under  the  general 
term,  "  productions  of  nature,"  and  fall  into  one 
of  the  great  divisions,  or  kingdoms. 
-  These  kingdoms  are  essential  one  to  another, 
for  without  the  vegetable  world  animals  could 
not  live,  nor  the  vegetable  without  the  mineral. 
The  meanest  animal  is  designed  for  some  certain 
use,  so  is  the  most  insignificant  vegetable  or 
mineral  ;  and  this  should  make  us  careful  to 
examine  every  thing  that  comes  before  us,  as  we 
shall  never  fail  to  find  much  that  will  both  please 
and  instruct  us. 


Questions. 

Mention  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature. 

What  is  animal  life  1 

In  what  does  vegetable  life  differ  from  animal  life  ? 

What  does  the  mineral  kingdom  include  ? 

Are  the  three  kingdoms  independent  of  each  other  ? 

What  do  we  learn  from  every  thing  having  some  use  1 

Which  of  the  three  kingdoms  includes  the  following  ob 
jects  1     A  horse — an  oyster — a  whale  ? 
{•'Which  comprises  the  following  objects  ?     A  diamond — a 
flint — a  sword  blade? 

Which  the  following  1   A  rose — a  pine  tree — a  strawberry! 


PRODUCTIONS  OF  HOT  COUNTRIES.      59 


LESSON  III. 

PRODUCTIONS  OF  HOT  COUNTRIES. 

THE  animal,  the  vegetable,  and  the  mineral 
kingdoms,  are  found  to  differ  in  different  coun- 
tries. The  wisdom  of  God  has  ordained  that 
every  climate  should  produce  those  objects  which 
are  necessary  for  the  comfort  and  convenience  of 
its  inhabitants.  Thus  we  find  that  hot  countries, 
which  have  no  winter,  abound  in  juicy  and  re- 
freshing fruits.  The  cocoanut,  the  olive,  the 
date,  the  melon,  the  orange,  and  the  pineapple, 
grow  luxuriantly,  and  afford  grateful  and  refresh- 
ing food.  A  few  dates  and  a  crust  of  bread  are 
the  dinner  of  the  Arab,  and  a  slice  or  two  of  bread- 
fruit the  simple  and  healthy  repast  of  the  South 
Sea  islander. 

The  animal  kingdom,  in  hot  countries,  contains 
some  of  the  largest  species  that  live  on  land.  The 
elephant  has  its  native  home  there,  and  in  its  wild 
state  is  found  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  high,  and 
from  thirteen  to  fourteen  feet  long,  and  often 


60      PRODUCTIONS  OP  HOT  COUNTRIES. 

weighing  six  or  seven  thousand  pounds.  Even 
with  this  enormous  bulk  and  weight  it  is  an  ani- 
mal of  quick  motions,  and  will  travel  seventy  or 
eighty  miles  a  day.  The  camel,  so  beautifully 
called  the  "ship  of  the  desert,"  is  capable  of  endur- 
ing intense  heat,  and,  though  burdened  with  a  load" 
of  six  hundred  pounds,  can  perform  a  journey  of 
sixty  miles  in  ten  hours.  Many  dry  and  sterile 
regions  of  the  earth  would  have  been  impassable 
by  beasts  of  burden,  but  for  this  docile  and  patient 
animal.  By  a  singular  and  wonderful  provision, 
it  is  enabled  to  travel  several  days  without  drink- 
ing, over  burning  sands  and  under  a  scorching  sun, 
where  any  other  creature  would  perish. 

The  ostrich,  one  of  the  largest  birds,  also  dwells 
in  hot  countries.  It  cannot  fly,  as  its  wings  have 
nothing  but  soft,  downy  feathers  upon  them.  To 
compensate  it  for  this  want,  however,  it  can  run 
exceedingly  fast,  faster  than  the  fleetest  horse,  and 
would  soon  outstrip  its  pursuers,  who  hunt  it  for 
the  sake  of  its  feathers,  were  it  to  go  straight  for- 
wards ;  but  it  runs  from  side  to  side,  and  is  soon 
caught.  Some  of  the  largest  snakes,  as  the  boa 
constrictor,  have  also  their  haunts  in  hot  countries. 

The  people  inhabiting  warm  climates  are  seldom 
so  strong  or  so  active  as  the  natives  of  temperate 
regions.  The  soil  is,  however,  so  fertile,  that  the 
finest  fruit  and  grain  are  produced  with  little  or  no 
labour.  The  fields  are  always  green,  and  the  trees 
never  stripped  of  their  leaves ;  but  blossom  and 
fruit,  seed-time  and  harvest,  are  in  constant  sue- 


PRODUCTIONS  OP  HOT  COUNTRIES.      61 

cession.  In  these  countries,  where  the  inhabitants 
are  least  able  to  bear  thick  and  heavy  garments, 
the  silk-worm  provides  them  with  a  light  material, 
admirably  fitted  for  their  clothing. 


Questions. 

"What  kind  of  fruits  are  chiefly  found  in  hot  countries  1 

How  is  this  accounted  for  1 

Mention  the  diet  of  the  Arab  and  the  South  Sea  islander. 

What  large  animals  live  in  hot  countries'? 

To  what  size  does  the  elephant  grow  1 

How  far  can  it  travel  in  a  day  1 

What  renders  the  camel  so  valuable  in  hot  and  dry  regions? 

What  peculiarity  has  the  ostrich  1 

Why  is  it  so  readily  caught  by  the  hunter  1 

What  appearance  has  the  country  in  hot  climates  1 

What  creature  furnishes  the  people  with  suitable  clothing  ? 


62     PRODUCTIONS  OP  COLD  COUNTRIES. 


LESSON  IV. 

THE  PRODUCTIONS  OF  COLD  COUNTRIES. 

THE  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  in  cold 
countries,  have  a  very  different  appearance  from  that . 
which  they  have  in  very  hot  ones.  The  care  of 
Almighty  God  is  however  seen  alike  in  both ;  and 
their  productions  are  equally  fitted  to  the  comforts 
and  wants  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  •  soil  of  very  cold  countries  cannot  yield 
much.  The  summer  is  so  short,  that  fruit  and 
grain  do  not  ripen ;  and  the  few  vegetables  which 
nourish  there  are  chiefly  lichens,  moss,  and  stunt- 
ed shrubs.  The  natives,  therefore,  do  not  seek 
their  support  from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  but  live 
almost  entirely  on  the  flesh  of  fish,  water-fowl,  and 
wild  animals.  These  exist  in  great  plenty,  and 
many  of  them  are  covered  with  thick  fur,  which 
serves  as  a  warm  clothing  against  the  extreme 
cold. 

The  rein-deer  is  an  animal  peculiar  to  cold  coun- 
tries. It  supplies  the  inhabitants  with  almost 


PRODUCTIONS  OF  COLD  COUNTRIES.      63 

every  thing  which  we  obtain  from  the  horse,  the 
ox,  and  the  sheep,  and  provides  for  the  greatest 
part  of  their  wants.  A  man's  wealth  in  these 
countries  is  calculated  by  the  number  of  rein-deer 
he  possesses  ;  for  they  supply  all  the  purposes  of 
food,  clothing,  and  draught.  Their  skins  are  made 
into  shoes,  bedding,  tent  covers,  and  dress  ;  their 
horns  into  various  kinds  of  vessels  :  their  bones 
into  knives,  spoons,  and  needles;  and  their  sinews 
into  cord  and  thread.  Very  little  trouble  is  re- 
quired to  keep  the  rein-deer,  as  it  feeds  chiefly, on 
leaves  and  mosses,  which  it  seeks  for  itself,  by 
scraping  away  the  snow  that  generally  covers 
the  ground  with  its  hoofs  and  horns.  It  is 
the  familiar  companion  of  its  owner  and  his 
family  ;  and  it  can  perform  a  journey  of  more 
than  a  hundred  miles  in  twenty  successive  hours. 
The  female  gives  a  rich  milk,  and  the  flesh  forms 
an  excellent  food. 

In  other  countries  still  colder,  the  dog  is 
almost  equally  useful.  In  these  situations,  where 
he  is  the  servant  and  companion  of  man,  he  gives 
striking  proofs  of  sagacity  and  docility.  He  serves 
for  drawing  sledges  over  the  frozen  snow,  and  has 
been  known  to  travel  nearly  a  hundred  miles  a 
day.  He  braves  the  severest  snow  storms,  and  is 
rarely  known  to  miss  his  way,  even  when  his 
driver  cannot  keep  his  eyes  open.  The  flesh  is 
considered  an  excellent  article  of  diet;  but  so  great 
is  his  value  that  he  is  seldom  killed,  unless  his 
owner  is  severely  pressed  by  famine. 


64      PRODUCTIONS  OP  COLD  COUNTRIES. 

The  "mighty  whale"  and  the  seal  form  a  great 
part  of  the  means  of  sustenance  to  some  tribes  of 
people  in  very  cold  countries.  They  are  fondest 
of  the  fat,  or  blubber,  and,  according  to  the  ac- 
count of  travellers,  are  the  greatest  eaters  in  the 
world. 

The  inhabitants  of  very  cold  countries  are  of 
small  size,  but  are  strong  and  active  in  their  per- 
sons. Their  dress,  which  is  composed  principally 
of  skins  covered  with  fur,  is  very  warm,  and 
often  very  valuable,  the  fur  being  an  important 
article  of  commerce. 


Questions. 

Are  many  vegetable  productions  found  in  cold  countries  ? 

What  is  the  principal  diet  of  the  people  in  northern  regions  ? 

Describe  some  of  the  uses  of  the  rein-deer. 

What  other  animal  is  very  valuable  in  some  cold  countries  ? 

Does  the  dog  show  signs  of  sagacity  in  these  situations  ? 

Mention  an  example  of  this. 

What  part  of  the  whale  is  chiefly  eaten  1 

Is  there  any  peculiarity  as  to  the  size  of  the  people  ? 


Esquimaux  Dog. 


TEMPERATE    COUNTRIES. 


65 


LESSON  V. 

PRODUCTIONS  OP  TEMPERATE  COUNTRIES. 

MANY  of  the  most  useful  and  valuable  objects 
in  the  three  "kingdoms  of  nature"  are  found  in 
temperate  countries,  where  the  climate  is  neither 
very  hot  nor  very  cold.  .'  We  live  in  a  temperate 
country,  and  have  summer,  autumn,  winter,  and 
spring,  in  regular  and  equal  succession.  The 
weather  in  these  countries  is  in  general  very 
changeable,  but  these  changes  are  in  the  highest 
degree  favourable  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

The  animal  kingdom,  in  temperate  countries, 
embraces  those  creatures  which  are  the  most  ser- 
viceable to  man.  The  horse,  the  ox,  and  the  sheep, 
are  found  in  their  most  perfect  state,  and  are  made 
use  of  for  draught,  for  riding,  for  food,  and  for 
clothing;  while  the  different  sorts  of  grain  and 
grass,  which  serve  for  our  own  support,  as  well  as 
for  that  of  animals,  are  more  abundant  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  In  very  cold  countries, 
none  of  these  animals  will  live.  The  horse,  when 
F2 


G6  PRODUCTIONS    OF 

found  as  far  north  as  even  the  Zetland  islands,  is 
reduce'd  to  a  very  diminutive  size,,  heing  scarcely 
so  large  as  the  smallest  of  our  ponies,  and  soon 
becoming  old  and  useless ;  Whilst  in  very  hot 
countries  the  cow  loses  some  of  her  most  valuable 
properties,  and  the  wool  of  the  sheep  is  deprived 
of  its  fleecy  character,  and  is  converted  into  hair. 

The  productions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  in 
temperate  countries,  are  much  more  varied  than  in 
other  situations.  The  wisdom  of  God  has  so  or- 
dered, that  many  of  the  most  useful  plants,  which 
grow  in  other  climates,  should  also  flourish  here. 
A  much  greater  number  of  valuable  vegetables  are 
therefore  cultivated  amongst  us  than  any  where 
else.  Wheat,  the  potato,  many  of  our  richest 
fruits,  and  most  of  the  ornamental  shrubs  which 
adorn  our  gardens  and  shrubberies,  have  been 
introduced  from  warm  countries.  And  our  forests, 
though  wanting  in  the  magnificence  and  grandeur 
of  those  of  hot  climates,  abound  with  useful  trees, 
such  as  the  oak,  the  ash,  the  elm,  and  the  beech. 

The  mineral  kingdom  is  peculiarly  rich  in  tem- 
perate regions,  where  the  climate  is  also  favourable 
for  the  labour  necessary  to  make  its  stores  available. 
Coal,  iron,  tin,  lead,  copper,  and  other  minerals 
essential  to  arts  and  manufactures,  and  to  the  com- 
forts of  life,  are  found  in  great  plenty.  These 
form  valuable  articles  of  commerce,  as  they  are 
useful  to  mankind  in  every  part  of  the  world. 

The  inhabitants  of  temperate  countries  are  of 
moderate  size,  and  live  almost  equally  on  animal 


TEMPERATE    COUNTRIES.  67 

and  vegetable  matter.  In  this  respect  they  differ 
from  the  natives  of  very  hot  and  very  cold  regions. 
People  in  the  latter  climate,  it  has  been  already 
said,  eat  nothing  but  animal  food  ;  and  in  warm 
climates,  very  little  but  vegetable  food  is  consumed. 
Thus  we  find  that  the  productions  of  nature  are 
fitted,  in  every  country  and  in  every  climate,  to 
the  peculiar  wants  and  condition  of  their  inhabit- 
ants ;  and  thus,  wherever  we  look,  we  find  cause 
to  admire  the  wisdom,  and  to  love  the  goodness, 
of  the  Creator  of  all  things. 


Questions. 

What  kind  of  climate  has  our  country  ? 

What  good  effects  arise  from  the  changeableness  of  the 
weather  1 

What  animals  are  found  in  the  greatest  perfection  in  tem- 
perate countries  ? 

Are  the  cow  and  the  sheep  as  valuable  in  hot  as  in  tempe- 
rate countries  ? 

Do  many  useful  vegetables  grow  in  temperate  countries  ? 

What  mineral  productions  are  found  very  plentifully  ? 

Why  are  these  valuable  articles  of  commerce  ? 

In  what  respect  does  the  diet  of  the  natives  differ  from  that 
in  hot  and  cold  countries  ? 

What  do  we  discover  from  this  circumstance  ? 

Do  we  live  in  a  temperate  climate1? 


(58  OP    ANIMALS    IN    GENERAL. 


^  LESSON  VI. 

••-VV--3 
OF    ANIMALS    IN    GENERAL. 

ALL  animals  living  upon  the  earth,  in  the  sea, 
or  in  the  air  have  been  arranged  into  six  classes ; 
namely,  mammalia,  birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  insects, 
and  worms,  or  molluscous  animals. 

Every  animal  has  a  stomach,  that  is,  a  cavity  in 
some  part  of  its  body,  into  which  food  is  received, 
and  which  there  undergoes  a  process^called  diges- 
tion. This  is  one  great  mark  of  distinction  be- 
tween animals  and  vegetables,  as  these  last  have 
nothing  whatever  in  the  shape  of  a  stomach. 

No  animal  but  man  possesses  reason.  God  has, 
however,  given  to  other  creatures  instinct,  by 
which  they  are  enabled  to  provide  for  all  their 
wants  with  unerring  certainty.  The  instinctive 
actions  of  many  animals  are  very  surprising, 
They  build  habitations  of  the  most  curious  con- 
struction, catch  their  prey  with  the  most  surprising 


OF    ANIMALS    IN    GENERAL.  69 

address,  and  do  many  other  things  which  might 
appear  to  arise  from  reflection  and  judgment. 

A  particular  kind  of  spider,  which  makes 
itself  a  house  in  holes  in  the  ground,  shuts  up 
the  entrance  by  means  of  a  door,  composed  of 
particles  of  soil,  fastened  together  by  threads  of 
silk.  This  door  is  held  by  a  silken  hinge  to  the 
opening  at  the  upper  side,  and  is  so  nicely 
balanced,  that,  when  pushed  up,  it  shuts  itself 
again  by  its  own  weight.  The  most  wonderful 
examples  of  instinct  are  shown,  however,  by  those 
animals  which  live  together  in  great  numbers,  as 
the  bee  and  the  ant.  These  build  themselves 
habitations  of  the  most  beautiful  regularity,  land 
full  of  commodious  apartments. 

The  modes  which  some  animals  take  to  defend 
themselves  afford  singular  proofs  of  the  care 
taken  for  their  preservation.  Horses  have  been 
known,  when  attacked  by  a  wolf,  to  range  them- 
selves in  a  circle  with  their  heads  close  together, 
and  to  defend  themselves  by  kicking  out  with  their 
hind-legs  ;  oxen  use  their  horns  for  the  same 
purpose,  and  the  hedge-hog  erects  its  prickles. 
Some  creatures,  which  live  in  water,  make  it 
muddy  when  in  danger,  and  the  cuttle-fish  throws 
out  an  inky  fluid,  and  by  this  means  hides  itself, 
and  escapes  pursuit.  Others,  particularly  amongst 
insects,  feign  to  be  dead.  The  dor-beetle,  which 
is  so  commonly  found  humming  about,  will, 
when  it  is  caught,  stretch  out  its  legs  quite  stiff, 


70  OF   ANIMALS   IN    GENERAL. 

and   lie   perfectly   motionless,   as   long   as    there 
appears  to  be  any  danger. 

The  force  of  instinct  is  also  very  strongly  shown 
by  the  way  in  which  many  birds  build  their  nests. 
Their  eggs  and  young  being  much  exposed  to 
danger,  the  greatest  ingenuity  is  displayed  in 
guarding  them  against  it.  Some  build  in  thick 
bushes,  others  in  the  clefts  of  rocks  ;  the  bank- 
swallow  burrows  in  sand  ;  the  starling  covers  her 
nest  with  thorns  ;  the  spotted  woodpecker  and  the 
nuthatch  build  in  hollow  trees,  taking  the  greatest 
pains  to  fill  up  part  of  the  entrance  with  clay ; 
and  many  birds,  as  the  grosbeak,  and  others, 
in  countries  abounding  with  snakes,  whicfr  are 
very  fond  of  nestlings,  suspend  their  nests  from 
the  extremities  of  the  most  delicate  twigs,  and 
enter  them  through  a  narrow  funnel-shaped  pas- 
sage from  below. 


Questions. 

Into  how  many  classes  has  the  animal  kingdom  been 
divided  ? 

Name  them. 

What  is  it  that  forms  a  great  distinction  between  animals 
and  vegetables  1 

What  has  been  given  to  animals  in  place  of  reason  ? 

Name  some  of  the  effects  of  instinct,  as  in  the  spider,  the 
bee,  and  the  ant. 

How  do  horses  and  oxen  defend  themselves  ? 

By  what  means  does  the  cuttle-fish  escape  pursuit  1 

What  creature  feigns  to  be  dead  when  it  is  in  danger "? 

Mention  the  ways  in  which  birds  build  their  nests. 


ON    THE    SENSES    OF    ANIMALS.  71 


LESSON  VII. 

ON    THE    SENSES    OP    ANIMALS. 

GREAT  differences  are  found  to  exist  amopgst 
animals,  as  to  the  quickness  and  extent  of  range 
of  their  senses.  The  eye  of  the  eagle  is  very 
acute ;  and  he  can  see  his  prey  when  soaring  at 
immense  heights  in  the  air.  Such  animals  as  feed 
on  carrion  scent  a  carcass  at  great  distances ;  and 
will  find  it  even  when  very  carefully  concealed. 
That  "household  depredator,"  the  mouse,  has  also 
a  keen  smell;  and  may  be  allured  from  its  most 
secret  and  distant  haunts  by  a  bit  of  toasted  cheese. 

The  senses  of  the  dog  seem  to  be  very  acute. 
Led  by  that  of  smell,  he  can  find  his  way  home 
from  great  distances,  and  trace  his  master  through 
a  crowded  street.  All  his  sensations  indeed  appear 
keen ;  as  he  shows  every  mark  of  delight  when  in 
company  with  those  to  whom  he  is  attached,  and 
is  dull  and  languid  when  absent  from  them.  So 
strong,  indeed,  are  his  feelings  of  attachment,  that 


73  ON    THE    SENSES    OF    ANIMALS. 

instances  have  been  known  in  which  he  has  pined 
and  died  when  separated  from  his  master.  The 
horse,  too,  obeys  cheerfully  the  voice  of  his  driver; 
the  huge  elephant  pays  willing  obedience  to  his 
keeper ;  and  the  patient  camel  bends  to  the  earth 
to  receive  his  load. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  possession 
of  a  very  nice  sense  of  taste  and  smell  is  the  cause 
which  enables  animals  to  select  their  food.  The 
larger  horned  cattle,  such  as  cows,  will  eat  only 
about  two  hundred  and  seventy  kinds  of  plants  out 
of  the  fifty  thousand  which  the  vegetable  kingdom 
contains.  They  leave  all  the  rest  untouched, 
however  beautiful  and  nutritious  they  may  be. 
The  horse  feeds  upon  two  hundred  and  sixty-two 
species;  whilst  the  hog,  still  more  choice  in  its 
selection  in  a  wild  state,  eats  only  of  seventy-two, 
and  will  not  taste  any  other.  Caterpillars  show 
the  same  capacity  of  selection;  for  if  thirty  differ- 
ent kinds  of  leaves  are  put  in  their  way,  they  will, 
perhaps,  touch  only  one  out  of  the  whole  number. 
The  silk-worm  subsists  on  the  leaves  of  the  mul- 
berry tree,  and  the  persons  engaged  in  the  rearing 
of  silk-worms  are  under  the  necessity  of  cultivat- 
ing this  tree  on  purpose  to  support  them. 

Thus,  looking  at  a  pasture-field,  it  will  be  seen 
that  some  places  are  cropped  quite  bare,  and  others 
left  untouched  ;  but  as  the  tastes  of  animals  vary, 
those  plants  which  are  refused  by  one  species  are 
eaten  by  another.  Some  plants,  too,  which  are 
poisonous  to  one  creature,  are  eaten  greedily,  and 


ON    THE    SENSES    OF    ANIMALS.  73 

without  doing  any  harm,  by  others.  The  goat, 
the  horse,  and  the  sheep  feed  upon  the  water- 
hemlock,  which  is  a  certain  poison  to 'the  cow. 

The  sense  of  touch  varies  greatly  in  different 
animals.  Man  uses  his  hands,  feet,  tongue,  and 
lips  for  feeling:  monkeys  do  the  same.  In  other 
instances,  this  sense  is  chiefly  seated  in  the  snout, 
the  proboscis,  or  lips.  Birds  use  their  feet  and 
bills  for  touching.  In  snipes  and  ducks,  which 
have  long  bills,  and  which  seek  their  food  among 
mud,  the  extremities  of  these  are  soft,  and  have  a 
very  delicate  sense  of  touch. 

The  hearing  of  most  animals  is  remarkably 
acute:  thus,  in  watching  birds  and  other  creatures, 
it  is  quite  obvious  that  they  are  sensible  of  many 
sounds  that  we  do  not  hear. 


Questions* 

For  what  is  the  eagle  remarkable  ? 
What  kind  of  animals  smell  their  food  at  great  distances  I 
Are  the  senses  of  the  dog  very  acute? 
Mention  some  proofs  of  this. 

What  is  it  that  guides  animals  in  their  selection  of  food  ? 
How  many  kinds  of  plants  are  eaten  by  cows  ? 
How  many  by  the  horse  and  the  hog  t 
What  plant  poisons  the  cow,  and  not  the  horse,  the  goat, 
and  the  sheep  1 

What  parts  are  chiefly  used  for  feeling,  by  different  animals  ? 
Do  animals  hear  quickly  ? 


74 


CLOTHING    OP    ANIMALS. 


LESSON  VIII. 

! 

CLOTHING    OF    ANIMALS. 

THE  care  of  a  beneficent  Creator  is  beautifully 
seen  in  the  clothing  with  which  he  has  provided 
his  creatures.  This  varies  greatly  in  different 
species,  and  in  the  same  species,  according  as  the 
climate  is  hot  or  cold  in  which  it  lives;  thus  the 
dogs  of  Guinea,  and  the  sheep  of  Africa  and  India, 
which  are  very  hot  countries,  have  so  little  wool 
upon  them  that  they  may  be  said  to  be  naked, 
whilst  the  Siberian  dog,  and  Iceland  sheep,  where 
the  climate  is  very  cold,  are  covered  with  a  thick 
long  fur.  The  covering  of  swine,  in  hot  regions, 
consists  of  nothing  but  bristles,;  in  colder  districts, 
however,  there  is,  in  addition  to  these,  a  quantity 
of  fine  short  wool  next  the  skin. 

The  same  variations  are  seen  amongst  our  own 
domestic  animals.  The  hair  upon  horses  grows 


CLOTHING    OF    ANIMALS.  75 

longer  and  thicker  as  winter  approaches,  and  thins 
and  falls  off  in  the  spring:  this  is  called  their  win- 
ter-coating, and  preserves  them  from  the  cold. 
The  same  thing  takes  place  with  cows  and  sheep. 
Those  animals  which  are  sought  after  on  account 
of  their  furs,  as  the  beaver,  the  fox,  the  hare,  the 
rabbit,'  and  others,  are  never  hunted  during  the 
summer,  because  the  fur  is  then  thin  and  short,  and 
of  little  value.  As  soon?  however,  as  winter  sets 
in,  the  fur  ripens,  as  it  is  called,  and  rapidly  in- 
creases in  quantity  and  length. 

Not  only  does  the  clothing  of  animals  vary  in 
quantity,  according  to  climate  and  season,  but,  in 
many  cases,  it  also  changes  colour.  The  arctic 
fox,  during  the  mild  weather,  is  of  a  bluish-gray 
tint,  but  becomes  quite  white  during  the  severe 
cold  of  winter.  The  Alpine  hare,  which  inhabits 
the  mountains  of  the  northern  part  of  Great  Britain, 
has  a  coat  of  tawny- gray  for  its  summer-dress, 
but  in  winter  it  changes  to  a  snowy  whiteness.  A 
similar  circumstance  takes  place  with  the  ermine, 
which,  from  a  pale  reddish-brown,  changes  to  a 
beautiful  whiteness.  This  alteration  in  colour, 
like  the  alteration  in  quantity,  is  a  wise  and  benefi- 
cent provision  to  preserve  animals  from  the  effects 
of  extreme  cold. 

The  colour  of  the  plumage  of  birds,  like  that 
of  the  hair  of  animals,  changes  with  the  season  in 
many  instances.  The  ptarmigan,  or  white  grouse, 
during  the  summer,  has  feathers  of  an  ash  colour, 
mottled  with  dark  spots  and  bars;  but  as  cold 


76  CLOTHING    OP    ANIMALS, 

weather  comes  on,  the  dark  spots  disappear,  and 
its  plumage  is  left  of  a  pure  white  :  in  spring,  the 
ashy  colour  returns  again.  The  guillemot,  a  water- 
bird  which  frequents  our  coasts,  during  summer 
is  quite  black,  excepting  a  single  white  spot  on  its 
wings.  In  the  winter,  the  bird  becomes  of  a  dus- 
ky-white colour;  and  when  seen  in  situations  still 
colder,  it  is  perfectly  white.  V 


Questions. 

What  difference  is  found  amongst  animals  as  to  their 
clothing  ? 

Name  some  examples. 

What  change  is  observable  in  the  horse  in  summer  and 
winter  1 

Why  are  animals  which  yield  furs  sought  for  only  in 
winter  1 

What  other  change  takes  place  in  the  clothing  of  animals  ? 

Mention  the  names  of  some  animals  which  become  white. 

Is  the  same  thing  observed  amongst  birds  1 

Name  some  instances. 


WINTER  SLEEP  OF  ANIMALS.        77 

LESSON  IX. 

SLEEP,  AND  THE  WINTER  SLEEP  OF  ANIMALS. 

OTHER  animals  have,  like  man,  times  of  action 
and  of  repose  ;  and,  when  fatigued,  seek  a  safe 
and  convenient  resting  place.  Some  are  exceed- 
ingly watchful  during  sleep,  and  appear  scarcely 
to  shut  their  eyes,  as  the  hare  and  the  chamois. 
Cats,  owls,  and  several  beasts  of  prey,  pass  the 
day  partly  in  sleep,  and  seek  their  food  during 
the  night. 

The  attention  bestowed  by  Almighty  God 
upon  the  works  of  his  hand,  is  very  forcibly 
shown  by  the  torpid  state  in  which  many  of  these 
pass  certain  portions  of  the  year.  Animals  which 
have  this  peculiarity  are  called  hybernating ; 
and,  during  the  winter  months  in  temperate 
countries,  and  the  dry  seasons  in  hot  ones,  they 
fall  into  a  deep  sleep,  and  remain  motionless  for 
weeks  and  sometimes  for  months.  They  are,  by 
this  singular  means,  preserved  from  being  de- 
stroyed by  cold,  and  from  perishing  for  want 
of  food,  in  seasons  when  it  would  have  been  im- 
possible for  them  to  have  procured  it. 

Some  of  these  hybernating  animals  towards 
the  end  of  autumn  prepare  for  themselves,  with 
great  labour  and  skill,  a  winter-house,  and 
store  it  with  provisions.  The  hamster,  a  very 
common  animal  in  Switzerland  and  Germany, 
G  2 


78  WINTER    SLEEP    OF    ANIMALS. 

makes  itself  an  extensive  habitation  under  ground; 
and  in  this  it  shuts  itself  up,  first  closing  and 
fortifying  all  the  openings.  Here,  as  the  cold 
weather  advances,  it  feeds  upon  its  stores,  and 
finally  becomes  torpid  ;  in  this  state  it  remains 
till  the  warmth  of  spring  revives  it,  and  fresh  food 
can  be  found.  The  marmot  burrows  a  similar 
house  for  itself ;  but  it  lays  up  no  provisions,  as  it 
becomes  torpid  at  once,  and  never  awakes  till  late 
in  the  spring.  y 

Bats  retire  to  caves,  the  hollows  of  old  trees,  or 
to  the  chimneys  of  uninhabited  houses  ;  and  in 
these  situations  may  be  found  hanging  in  clusters. 
The  hedge-hog  rolls  itself  up  in  leaves  and  dried 
grass,  and  conceals  itself  in  hedges  ;  frogs  con- 
gregate at  the  bottom  of  ponds  ;  lizards  hide 
themselves  in  the  clefts  of  rocks ;  spiders  wrap 
themselves  up  in  their  webs  ;  the  common  house- 
fly may  always  be  found  in  some  retired  corner  ; 
and  snails  fasten  themselves  to  crevices  in  old 
walls  and  other  similar  places. 

Several  hybernating  animals  occasionally  awake 
if  a  few  fine  days  occur  during  the  cold  season. 
Instinct  has,  in  these  cases,  taught  them  to  lay 
up  provisions,  such  as  nuts,  acorns,  and  other 
things  :  these  are  either  enclosed  in  their  dwell- 
ing, as  in  Jie  hamster,  or  placed  somewhere  con- 
veniently near.  That  beautiful  little  creature, 
the  dormouse,  may  sometimes,  on  a  mild  day, 
be  seen  stealing  from  its  nest,  warmly  lined,  and 
secured  against  wet,  to  its  granary  under  the 


WINTER    SLEEP    OF    ANIMALS. 


79 


root  of  some  old  thorn,  or  hidden  in  some  secret 
crevice  not  far  off. 

Creatures  that  pass  the  winter  in  a  torpid 
state  are  generally  cold  to  the  touch,  and  ap- 
pear to  be  almost  dead.  They  also  become  much 
lighter  during  their  torpidity,  and  when  they 
awake,  in  the  spring,  are  very  thin. 


Questions. 

What  animals  are  very  watchful  during  sleep  ? 
In  what  manner  do  some  animals  spend  the  winter-months  1 
What  name  is  given  to  them  in  consequence  1 
How  does  the  hamster  prepare  its  winter-house  ? 
Mention  some  other  examples  of  hybernating  animals. 
Do  all  these  animals  sleep  during  the  whole  winter  ] 
How  are  they  preserved  from  want  of  food  when  they 
awake "? 

Mention  one  example. 

What  is  remarkable  about  these  torpid  animals  ? 


80  BIRDS    OF    PASSAGE. 


LESSON  X. 

MIGRATION  OF  ANIMALS BIRDS  OF  PASSAGE. 

THERE  is  another  very  curious  proof  of  the 
instinct  of  animals,  and  of  the  care  taken  for 
their  preservation  ;  and  this  is  their  migrations. 
This  signifies  that,  at  certain  times,  they  remove 
from  one  situation  to  another  —  often  to  very 
great  distances  ;  crossing  wide  seas,  and  passing 
over  entire  countries  :  one  kind  of  bat  being 
known  to  live  here  during  the  summer,  and  to 
remove  to  the  south  during  the  winter. 

There  are  but  few  quadrupeds  which  migrate 
very  far.  These  rather  remove  from  one  part 
of  the  same  country  to  another,  according  to  the 
seasons.  Some  kinds  of  deer,  however,  in  north- 
ern regions,  change  their  residence^in  summer  and 
winter,  and  travel  considerable  distances. 

Many  birds  migrate,  and  are  hence  called 
birds  of  passage.  We  are  told  in  the  Bible,  that 
''the  stork  in  heaven  knoweth  her  appointed 
times  ;  and  the  turtle,  and  the  crane,  and  the 


BIRDS    OF    PASSAGE.  SI 

swallow,  observe  their  time  of  coming."  The 
regularity  with  which  these  creatures  depart  from, 
and  return  to  us,  is  very  surprising.  The  same 
pair  of  swallows  have  been  known  to  occupy,  for 
several  successive  years,  the  same  nest,  and  to 
twitter,  as  old  friends,  at  the  same  window-sill  ; 
yet  these,  during  their  absence,  must  have  passed 
their  time  a  thousand  miles  to  the  south. 

That  most  delicious  warbler,  the  mocking  bird, 
which  spends  the  summer  with  us  in  Pennsylva- 
nia, removes,  at  the  end  of  autumn,  into  the  south. 
This  bird  is  so  constituted  as  to  be  unable  to  bear 
the  coldness  of  our  winter.  During  the  sum- 
mer our  groves  and  orchards  are  filled  with 
"feathered  choristers,"  busily  engaged  in  rearing 
their  young ;  but  no  sooner  is  this  effected,  and 
the  cold  winds  of  autumn  begin  to  blow,  than  they 
wing  their  way  to  more  genial  climates,  again  to 
delight  us  by  their  reappearance,  in  spring,  as  the 
harbingers  of  our  finest  seasons.  These  birds  are 
called  summer  birds  of  passage ;  it  is  God  who 
teaches  them  their  appointed  times  of  coming  and 
going,  and  who  guides  them  in  their  long  journeys. 

Most  birds,  when  preparing  to  migrate,  assem- 
ble together  in  great  flocks.  Thus  we  may  see 
clouds  of  swallows  wheeling  about  in  the  air,  in 
Septen^jer,  as  if  they  were  trying  their  strength 
of  wing  before  their  final  departure.  Woodcocks, 
turtle-doves,  wild-geese,  and  shear-waters,  do  the 
same,  and  are  always  seen  travelling  in  company. 

There  are  other  migratory  birds,  which  spend 


82  BIRDS  OP  PASSAGE. 

the  winter  with  us,  and  not  the  summer.  These 
are  called  winter  birds  of  passage;  and  are  chiefly 
water-fowl,  that  are  driven  from  more  northern 
regions  by  the  freezing  of  the  creeks,  lakes,  and 
marshes.  These  leave  us  in  the  spring,  when  the 
waters  are  again  open,  and  breed  while  they  are 
absent;  generally  retiring  to  Canada  and  New 
Britain.  Such  birds  as  feed  in  the  night,  as  the 
woodcock,  perform  their  migration  by  night;  and 
others,  that  seek  their  food  during  the  day,  fly 
during  daylight,  and  rest  at  night. 

When  it  is  asked  how  birds  can  make  such  dis- 
tant journeys?  the  answer  is  simple — The  rate  at 
which  they  fly  is  quite  astonishing,  and  has  been 
calculated  at  from  fifty  to  seventy  miles  an  hour. 
A  day's  journey  would  carry  them,  therefore,  four 
or  five  hundred  miles;  and,  as  they  are  capable 
of  remaining  for  many  hours  without  food,  they 
easily  pass  from  one  country  to  another. 


Questions. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  migration  1 

Do  many  quadrupeds  migrate  ? 

Do  many  birds  migrate,  and  what  name  is  given  to  them  ? 

What  is  remarkable  about  the  return  of  the  swallow  1 

Where  does  it  pass  the  winter  ? 

Where  does  the  mocking-bird  winter1? 

Do  summer  birds  of  passage  rear  their  young  with  us  1 

What  kind  of  birds  are  chiefly  the  winter  birds  of  passage  ? 

Do  these  breed  with  us  ? 

At  what  rate  do  these  birds  fly  ? 


STRUCTURE    OF    THE    MAMMALIA.  8? 


Ounng-oatang. 

LESSON  XL 

FIRST    CLASS    OF    ANIMALS MAMMALIA. 

ALL  animals,  however  various  their  forms,  and 
however  different  in  their  modes  of  living,  have 
been  arranged  into  six  classes.  The  first  of  these 
classes  is  called  mammalia,  because  the  animals 
included  in  it  suckle  their  young,  till  they  are  able 
to  provide  themselves  with  food.  They  have  also 
been  called  viviparous  animals,  because  their 
young  are  born  alive. 

The  mammalia,  generally  speaking,  are  qua- 
drupeds, that  is  four-legged  animals:  man  has 
however,  two  feet,  and  is  hence  called  a  biped; 
and  the  monkey  tribe,  instead  of  four  feet,  have 
four  hands,  and  are  called  quadrumanouSy  or  four 
handed  animals. 

The  greatest  part  of  the  mammalia  live  upon  the 
ground.  There  are  however  some,  as  apes,  squir- 


84  STRUCTURE    OF    THE    MAMMALIA. 

rels,  and  the  sloth,  which  spend  most  of  their  time 
in  trees.  A  few,  as,  the  mole  and  the  hamster, 
dwell  chiefly  underground  ;  others,  as  the  beaver, 
the  water-rat,  the  white  bear,  and  the  seal,  are 
sometimes  on  land,  and  sometimes  in  the  water, 
and  a  few  live  entirely  in  the  sea. 

Such  of  these  animals  as  live  partly  on  land  and 
partly  in  water  have  their  fingers  and  toes  con 
nected  by  a  membrane  or  web,  which  is  of  great 
use  to  them  in  swimming.  Bats  have  the  long 
finger-like  toes  of  their  fore-feet  united  by  a 
delicate  web,  which,  when  the  toes  are  opened, 
expands  and  forms  wings,  and  -are  by  this  means 
enabled  to  fly.  They  are  the  only  mammalia 
which  have  this  power,  though  there  is  one  species 
of  squirrel,  called  the  flying-squirrel,  which  can 
support  itself  for  considerable  distances  through 
the  air  when  springing  from  tree  to  tree. 

Many  animals  in  this  class  have  horny  and  un- 
divided hoofs,  as  the  horse  and  the  ass ;  others 
have  cloven  feet,  as  the  sheep  and  the  cow.  Most 
of  them  walk  on  their  toes,  only  a  very  few  species 
planting  the  sole  of  the  foot  on  the  ground. 

The  bodies  of  most  of  the  mammalia  are  covered 
with  hair.  Some  have  it  scattered  very  thinly 
over  the  body,  as  the  elephant  and  the  rhinoceros; 
others  are  very  thickly  covered,  as  the  sheep. 
This  hair  varies  greatly,  both  in  length  and  colour. 
In  some  species  it  is  curled  and  woolly,  as  in  many 
varieties  of  dogs ;  in  others  it  is  stiff  and  straight, 
forming  bristles ;  and  sometimes  it  is  in  the  shape 


STRUCTURE    OF    THE    MAMMALIA.  85 

of  strong  and  pointed  spines,  as  in  the  hedgehog 
and  the  porcupine.  There  are  some  animals 
which  have  the  hair  on  the  neck  long  and  flowing, 
as  in  the  horse  and  lion,  in  these  cases  it  is  called 
a  mane ;  and  in  others  it  grows  long  under  the 
chin,  and  is  then  called  a  beard,  as  in  the  goat. 

Besides  claws  and  teeth,  many  of  the  mammalia 
are  furnished  with  horns  to  defend  themselves. 
Those  of  the  stag  are  branched,  and  termed  antlers. 
They  are  shed  or  cast  off  every  year,  and  replaced 
by  new  ones,  which  are  at  first  very  soft  and 
tender. 

Some  animals  of  this  class,  as  the  ape,  the  seal, 
and  the  hamster,  are  furnished  with  cheek-pouch- 
es, or  little  bags  placed  on  each  side  the  lower  jaw. 
These  they  use  as  pockets,  and  carry  provisions 
in  them ;  others  have  a  pouch  or  bag  on  the  body, 
which  is  large  enough  for  their  young  to  creep  in 
when  feeding,  or  when  threatened  with  danger. 
This  peculiarity  is  seen  in  the  kangaroo  and  the 
opossum. 


Questions. 

What  shape  have  the  mammalia  in  general  1 

In. what  respect  does  man  differ  from  the  rest? 

Are  monkeys  four-footed  animals,  and  what  name  is  applied 
to  them  ? 

Mention  the  different  situations  in  which  the  mammalia 
live. 

What  peculiarity  have  creatures  which  live  partly  on  land 
and  in  water  I 

Describe  the  wing  of  the  bat. 
H 


86  STRUCTURE    OP    THE    MAMMALIA. 

Does  any  other  animal  of  this  class  fly  ? 

In  what  respect  do  the  hoofs  of  horses  and  cows  differ  1 

With  what  are  the  bodies  of  the  mammalia  generally 
covered  ? 

What  names  are  given  to  the  hair  when  it  grows  long  in 
certain  situations  1 

What  animals  are  furnished  with  cheek-pouches'? 

What  is  the  use  of  those  cheek-pouches  1 

What  is  meant  by  the  term  antlers? 

How  often  are  they  shed  by  the  stag  1 

What  is  the  meaning  of  biped? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  quadrumanous  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  flying-squirrel  1 

What  animals  have  undivided  hoofs  1 

What  animals  have  cloven  feet  ? 

Describe  the  different  kinds  of  hair. 

What  animals  have  a  mane  1 

What  animals  have  a  beard  ? 


Cbimpanse. 


MAMMALIA    OF    THE    SEA.  87 


LESSON  XII. 

MAMMALIA    OP    THE    SEA. 

SEVERAL  of  the  mammalia  live  entirely  in  the 
sea.  Amongst  these  are  various  kinds  of  whale, 
the  narwhal,  and  the  dolphin.  These  animals, 
though  living  in  water  like  fish,  and  having  the 
same  habits  in  general,  nourish  their  young  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  other  mammalia. 

The  whale  is  the  largest  of  all  animals,  and 
grows  to  a  vast  size,  sometimes  measuring  eighty 
or  ninety  feet  in  length,  nearly  as  many  in  circum- 
ference, and  weighing  from  two  to  three  hundred 
thousand  pounds.  The  mouth  of  the  whale  is  very 
large,  and  the  tongue  fourteen  or  fifteen  feet  long, 
and  seven  or  eight  feet  wide. 


88  MAMMALIA    OP    THE    SEA. 

This  immense  creature,  however,  lives  upon 
small  sea-animals,  and  is  provided  with  a  very  cu- 
rious apparatus  for  catching  them.  This  is  what 
is  called  whale-bone,  and  consists  of  numerous 
plates,  fixed  to  the  top  of  the  mouth,  with  a  fringe 
growing  from  their  lower  edges.  It  is  by  means  of 
this  fringe  that  the  whale  is  enabled  to  catch  its  prey, 
as  it  serves  as  a  sort  of  sieve  to  entangle  the  small 
animals  that  are  taken  into  its  enormous  mouth.  Its 
skin  is  very  smooth,  and  looks  almost  like  oiled 
silk,  and  beneath  this  is  a  coating  of  fat  from  ten  to 
twelve  inches  thick.  It  is  for  the  fat,  or  blubber, 
as  it  is  termed,  that  this  huge  animal  is  principally 
sought  after,  as  it  supplies  us  with  train-oil.  The 
nostrils  open  on  the  top  of  the  head,  and  are  called 
blow-holes,  through  which  it  can  spout  water  with 
great  force.  The  whale  dwells  in  the  frozen  seas 
of  the  north,  and  is  very  useful  to  the  people  in- 
habiting those  desolate  regions. 

The  spermaceti-whale  yields  the  fine  oil  called 
spermaceti.  These  huge  creatures  are  very  quiet 
and  inoffensive,  and  are  generally  seen  in  shoals 
or  pairs. 

Another  of  the  mammalia,  which  lives  in  the  sea, 
is  the  dolphin.  This  animal  is  much  celebrated 
for  the  beauty  of  its  colours,  and  for  its  sportive 
character.  It  is  often  seen  playing  about  ships  in 
great  numbers,  gamboling  backwards  and  for- 
wards ;  and  when  taken  from  the  water,  exhibits  a 
series  of  very  brilliant  colours. 

The  narwhal  has  no  teeth,  but  has  a  large  horn 


MAMMALIA    OP    THE    SEA.  89 

growing  from  its  forehead  :  this  tapers  towards 
the  end,  and  is  curiously  twisted,  and  from  this 
peculiarity  it  is  sometimes  called  the  sea-uni- 
corn. 


Questions. 

What  mammalia  live  in  the  sea  1 

For  what  are  whales  chiefly  taken  I 

To  what  size  does  the  whale  grow  ? 

What  does  the  whale  live  on  ? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  whale  ? 

For  what  is  the  dolphin  celebrated  ? 

Why  is  the  narwhal  sometimes  called  the  sea-unicorn  ? 

Are  these  sea  mammalia  generally  of  harmless  habits'? 


Seal., 


H2 


UTILITY  OF  THE  MAMMALIA  TO  MAN. 


Indiana  selling  peltry. 

LESSON  XIII 

UTILITY  OF  THE  MAMMALIA  TO  MAN. 

ALL  the  "productions  of  nature"  are  designed, 
by  their  Divine  Author,  to  fulfil  some  wise  and 
beneficial  purpose.  Among  the  rest,  the  mam- 
malia are  especially  useful  to  man  ;  and  serve  for 
riding,  for  draught,  for  carrying  burdens,  and  for 
cultivating  the  land.  For  these  purposes  the 
horse,  the  ass,  the  ox,  the  buffalo,  the  rein-deer, 
the  elephant,  the  camel,  the  dog,  and  the  llama 
are  willing  servants.  Man  also  finds  his  prin- 
cipal supply  of  food  in  this  class  of  animals  ;  the 
flesh  of  the  ox,  the  sheep,  the  goat,  the  hog,  the 
stag,  the  hare,  and  the  rabbit  forming  a  nourish- 
ing and  palatable  diet.  In  some  countries  the 
flesh  of  the  horse  and  the  dog 'is  much  esteemed. 
The  fat,  the  blood,  and  the  milk  of  mammalia  are 
also  used  as  food. 

Besides  these  uses,  many  parts  of  animals  are 
of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  comfort  and  con- 


OP  THE  MAMMALIA  TO  MAN.  91 

venience  of  man.  He  derives  the  greatest  part 
of  his  clothing  from  their  skins,  their  hair,  and 
their  wool.  Many  skins  are  prepared  with  the 
hair  left  upon  them,  and  in  this  state  are  called 
furs,  or  in  commerce  peltry.  These  are  furnished 
chiefly  by  wild  animals ;  as  the  fox,  the  hare,  the 
heaver,  the  ermine,  and  the  sable. 

The  fur  of  these,  and  the  hair  of  the  dog  and 
the  goat,  are  made  into  hats.  That  of  cows  and 
calves,  and  horses,  is  used  for  stuffing  chairs, 
sofas,  and  mattrasses,  and  for  making  hair-cloth, 
the  finer  sorts  of  which  are  sometimes  used  for 
clothing,  and  the  coarser  for  packing  valuable 
goods.  The  shining  stuff,  used  for  covering 
chairs,  is  made  of  horse-hair,  and  the  hair  of 
violin-bows  is  procured  from  the  tails  of  horses. 
Camel-hair  is  used  for  making  hats,  and  a  stuff 
called  camlet  ;  and  that  of  the  Angora  goat  is 
manufactured  into  a  yarn,  from  which  various 
stuffs  are  woven.  The  wool  of  the  sheep  is, 
however,  the  most  valuable,  being  converted,  by 
means  of  the  loom,  into  woollen  cloth,  shalloon, 
serge,  baize,  and  flannel. 

The  skins  of  wild  boars  and  seals  are  used  for 
covering  trunks  ;  but  the  most  important  use  of 
the  skins  of  animals  is  to  make  leather,  by  a 
process  termed  tanning.  This  is  the  business  of 
the  tanner,  who  employs  the  skins  of  oxen,  calves, 
sheep,  and  deer.  The  beautiful  shining  leather, 
called  morocco,  is  made  from  goat-skin. 

Candles  are  made   from   the   fat  of  cows  and 


92          UTILITY  OF  THE  MAMMALIA  TO  MAN. 

sheep,  and  the  whale  and  the  seal  furnish  oil  for 
burning  in  lamps.  The  bristles  of  the  hog  are 
made  into  brushes.  The  horns  and  teeth,  (espe- 
cially elephants'  teeth,  or  ivory,)  and  the  bones 
of  mammalia,  are  worked  up  by  the  turner  into 
a  variety  of  useful  and  ornamental  articles  5  as 
knife-handles,  boxes,  and  combs ;  and  glue  is 
made  by  boiling  down  their  bones,  horns,  and 
sinews. 


Questions. 

What  class  of  animals  is  particularly  useful  to  man? 

Mention  some  of  the  mammalia,  and  the  uses  they  are  of  ? 

What  animals  supply  us  principally  with  food  ? 

For  what  purpose  are  skins,  hair,  and  wool  used  ? 

What  are  hats  made  of? 

What  is  made  from  the  hair  of  cows,  calves,  and  horses  ? 

From  the  wool  of  what  animal  are  made  flannels,  baize, 
and  serge  ? 

What  is  leather,  and  what  name  is  given  to  the  process  of 
making  it  ? 

Are  the  horns,  teeth,  and  bones  of  mammalia  useful  ? 

What  is  glue? 


BIRDS    IN    GENERAL.  93 


LESSON  XIV. 

BIRDS    IN    GENERAL. 

BIRDS  form  the  second  class  in  the  animal 
kingdom.  They  differ  very  widely  from  the 
mammalia,  both  in  their  structure  and  appear- 
ance, and  in  the  mode  of  producing  their  young. 
They  all  lay  eggs,  and  are  hence  called  ovi- 
parou  5  animals.  These  eggs,  on  being  incubated 
or  sat  upon,  are  hatched  by  the  warmth  of  the 
mother,  and  at  the  end  of  a  certain  time  young 
birds  are  produced  from  them. 

TLe  form  of  birds  is  very  graceful,  and  though 
a  numerous  class,  they  have  a  strong  general 
resemblance  to  each  other.  All  of  them  have 
two  legs,  two  wings,  a  horny  bill,  and  a  body 
covered  with  feathers.  They  are  found  in  every 
part  of  the  world  ;  and,  like  all  other  natural 
objects,  afford  striking  proofs  of  the  wisdom  and 
care  of  their  Creator.  In  very  hot  countries 
this  class  of  creatures  is  seen  sporting  amidst  lofty 


94  BIRDS    IN    GENERAL. 

forests,  or  gliding  over  the  richest  plains  in  the 
most  brilliant  and  gorgeous  colours,  and  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  delicate  shapes.  The  parrots,  the 
crested  pheasant,  that  "  floating  gem"  the  hum- 
ming bird,  and  the  singular  but  superb  bird  of 
paradise,  are  very  numerous.  In  very  cold  coun- 
tries birds  are  much  less  plentiful,  and  consist 
chiefly  of  water-fowl.  These  seek  their  support 
in  lakes  and  creeks  of  the  sea,  as  the  ground  is 
almost  continually  frozen  or  covered  with  snow, 
and  consequently  does  not  yield  any  food.  In 
temperate  countries  there  are  a  great  variety  of 
birds,  as  some  from  hotter  climates  spend  the  sum- 
mer there,  and  others  the  winter,  from  cold  re- 
gions. Many  of  the  birds  of  these  countries  are 
also  song-birds,  and  fill  the  grove  and  forest  with 
the  most  delightful  music. 

The  vision  of  birds  is  in  general  very  quick, 
and  of  very  wide  range.  The  swallow,  which, 
feeds  on  small  insects,  catches  them  when  on  the 
wing,  and  many  of  the  rapid  evolutions  it  makes 
are  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  a  prey  too  minute 
to  be  seen  by  man.  The  hen,  when  surrounded 
with  her  brood,  will  detect  a  hawk  at  a  distance 
far  beyond  our  limit  of  sight  ;  and  the  redstart, 
though  perched  on  the  top  of  a  lofty  tree,  will 
dart  to  the  ground,  and  with  unerring  aim  seize 
upon  the  smallest  insect. 

To  guard  the  eyes  against  mischief  when  flit- 
ting rapidly  amidst  thickets,  and  to  screen  them 
from  the  glare  of  the  sun,  a  very  singular  provision 


BIRDS    IN    GENERAL. 


95 


has  been  made.  This  is  called  the  nictitating  or 
winking  membrane,  and  is  in  the  form  of  a  half- 
transparent  curtain,  which  the  bird  can  at  pleasure 
draw  over  the  eye,  just  in  the  same  way  as  we  use 
our  eyelids. 

The  bill  or  beak  of  birds  serves  all  the  purposes 
of  teeth.  It  is  used  for  seizing  and  bruising  their 
food,  and  as  a  sort  of  hand  for  carrying ;  and  is 
besides  the  instrument  for  cleaning  and  pruning 
their  feathers,  for  building  their  nests,  for  defence, 
and  in  some  instances,  as  in  that  of  the  parrot,  for 
climbing. 

Questions. 

In  what  way  do  birds  produce  their  young  ? 
What  are  they  called  in  consequence 
What  parts  are  common  to  all  birds  ? 
Wrhat  birds  are  found  plentifully  in  hot  countries? 
What  kind  of  birds  are  plentiful  in  cold  countries? 
How  is  this  accounted  for  ? 
Are  birds  numerous  in  temperate  climates  ? 
Mention  some  instances  of  the  quickness  of  sight  in  birds. 
What  guards  their  eyes  ? 
For  what  purposes  is  the  bill  useful  ? 


Fish-hawk  and  Eagle. 


96  STRUCTURE    OF    BIRDS. 


LESSON  XV. 

STRUCTURE    OF    BIRDS WINGS,    LUNGS,    CROP, 

FEATHERS,    ETC. 

THE  frame  of  birds  is  very  beautifully  adapted 
to  their  habits.  Many  of  them  pass  a  great  portion 
of  their  time  in  the  air,  either  in  the  pursuit  of 
their  prey,  or  in  sportive  gambols,  and  in  these  we 
find  every  part  of  the  body  framed  as  lightly  as 
possible.  In  order  to  enable  them  to  glide  easily 
along,  all  their  feathers  lie  one  way,  pointing 
backwards,  and  folding  over  each  other  in.  regular 
order.  No  resistance  is  offered  to  their  flight  by 
this  arrangement,  whilst  beneath  these  there  is  a 
layer  of  soft  down,  which  preserves  them  from 
cold,  to  the  effects  of  which,  but  for  this  provision, 
they  would  have  been  much  exposed. 

The  wings  of  birds  are  the  means  by  which  they 
support  themselves,  and  contain  the  largest  and 


STRUCTURE    OP    BIRDS.  97 

strongest  feathers;  though  made  of  very  light 
materials,  they  are  moved  by  powerful  muscles. 
These  propel  them  forwards  with  great  rapidity, 
and  enable  them  to  sustain  long  flights  during  their 
migrations.  Their  bones  are  also  exceedingly 
light  and  thin ;  and  to  make  them  still  more 
buoyant,  air-cells,  connected  with  their  lungs,  are 
extended  almost  over  the  whole  body.  In  the 
mammalia,  the  lungs  are  confined  to  the  chest, 
but  in  this  class  they  pass  along. the  sides  of  the 
body  into  the  bones,  and  even  -into  the  pinions  or 
wing-feathers.  All  these  are  filled  when  the  bird 
breathes,  and  it  is  thus  made  almost  as  light  as  the 
air,  and  floats  in  it  very  easily  and  lightly.  Next  to 
the  wings,  the  largest  feathers  are  in  the  tail,  and 
this  is  used  as  a  kind  of  rudder,  to  guide  and  regu- 
late their  motions  when  flying. 

Birds  have  no  teeth  for  masticating  their  food, 
and  therefore  either  swallow  it  whole,  or  crush 
and  tear  it  with  their  bills.  Some  of  them,  which 
feed  principally  on  grain,  always  swallow  it  with- 
out breaking;  and  in  these  the  food  does  not  pass 
at  once  into  the  proper  stomach,  or  gizzard,  as  it  is 
termed,  but  is  received  into  a  pouch  called  the 
crop,  where  it  is  softened  and  rendered  fit  for 
digestion.  These  birds  are  in  the  habit  of  swal- 
lowing pebbles  and  gravel,  which  appear  to  be 
useful  in  the  crop,  and  to  assist  in  bruising  the 
hard  skin  of  the  grain. 

The  greatest  part  of  birds  live  in  trees,  some  on 
the  water,  and  but  very  few  on  the  ground  only. 
I 


.  98  STRUCTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

Those  that  live  in  trees,  and  spend  their  time  on 
land,  have  the  toes  separate ;  as  the  sparrow,  the 
linnet,  and  the  canary;  whilst  the  goose,  the  duck, 
the  swan,  and  other  waterfowl  have  their  toes 
connected  by  a  membrane  or  web,  and  are  hence 
called  web-footed.  This  web  enables  them  to 
swim  readily  and  quickly,  as  it  offers  a  wide  sur- 
face to  The  water,  and  serves  as  a  broad  oar. 

The  feathers  of  birds  are  of  very  curious  con- 
struction, and  have  a  series  of  webs  or  beards,  one 
lying  over  the  other  so  as  effectually  to  keep  out 
moisture,  and  forming  a  complete  dress.  To  assist 
in  keeping  the  body  dry,  birds  are  also  provided 
with  a  gland  or  little  bag,  seated  near  the  tail,  from 
which  they  procure  a  supply  of  oil  to  smear  over 
their  feathers,  and  thus  allow  the  water  to  run  off 
without  penetrating. 


Questions. 

What  is  particular  in  the  structure  of  birds  1 

In  what  way  are  their  feathers  arranged*? 

In  what  part  is  a  bird  provided  with  powerful  muscles  1 

What  are  the  uses  of  these  ? 

What  is  peculiar  about  the  lungs  of  birds  1 

Do  they  differ  in  this  respect  from  the  mammalia'? 

Do  some  birds  swallow  their  food  whole  1 

Does  it  then  pass  at  once  into  the  stomach  or  gizzard  ? 

What  is  the  name  of  the  pouch  into  which  it  is  received  ? 

What  difference  is  there  in  the  toes  of  land  and  water  birds  T 

How  are  birds  protected  from  wet  1 


FOOD    OP    BIRDS.  99 


LESSON  XVI. 

FOOD    OF    BIRDS — GRANIVOROUS   AND    CARNIVOROUS 
BIRDS THE    CONDOR. 

THE  food  of  birds  is  very  various.  Some  live 
principally  on  worms,  caterpillars,  and  insects ; 
others,  as  birds  of  prey,  eat  mice  and  other  ani- 
mals ;  others  live  on  seeds  and  grain.  Birds  of 
prey  are  called  carnivorous,  or  flesh-eating,  and 
those  which  live  on  seeds  granivorous,  or  seed- 
eating. 

Granivorous  birds  are  the  most  prolific  and  most 
useful  to  man,  as  they  are  easily  tamed  and  domes- 
ticated. They  are  in  general  social,  or  gregarious 
in  their  habits,  and  often  live  together  in  great 
numbers,  forming  extensive  colonies,  as  rooks  and 
doves.  The  fowl,  the  duck,  the  goose,  and  the 
turkey,  are  used  very  largely  for  food,  the  flesh 
being  sweet  and  good,  and  highly  nutritious.  The 
goldfinch,  the  chaffinch,  and  the  linnet,  which  de- 


100  FOOD    OF    BIRDS. 

light  us  with  their  song,  are  granivorous,  and  may 
be  seen  busily  pecking  the  thistle  and  groundsel 
when  ripe ;  whilst  the  yellow-hammer,  the  bunt- 
ing, and  the  reed-sparrow,  run  along  the  ground, 
collecting  the  seeds  of  the  different  kinds  of  grass. 

Carnivorous  birds  have  very  different  habits 
from  the  granivorous.  Their  manners  and  dispo- 
sitions are,  in  general,  fierce  and  unsocial  towards 
each  other,  and  they  are  rarely  seen  in  flocks  01 
companies.  Each  pair  build  themselves  a  separate 
habitation,  either  on  the  top  of  some  lonely  rock, 
or  in  the  depths  of  thick  woods,  and  suffer  nothing 
else  to  dwell  near  them.  Many,  as  the  eagle  and 
the  hawk,  have  strong  and  active  bodies,  a  power- 
ful sweep  of  wing,  and  are  armed  with  curved  bills 
and  strong  talons.  Their  heads  are  commonly 
large,  with  a  short  neck ;  and  they  possess  very 
acute  senses  of  sight  and  smell.  The  hawk  may 
be  observed  soaring  at  a  height  so  great,  that  it 
appears  only  a  speck,  when,  all  at  once,  it  will  de- 
scend like  an  arrow,  and  pounce  upon  its  prey ; 
perhaps  a  poor  wren  cowering  amongst  the  grass, 
and  hardly  visible ;  and  the  vulture,  when  a  piece 
of  carrion  is  exposed,  scents  it  at  an  amazing  dis- 
tance. 

The  condor,  which  is  the  largest  flying  bird, 
is  carnivorous.  It  is  a  very  powerful  creature, 
frequently  standing  a  yard  high,  and  its  wings 
measuring  six  or  eight  feet  from  the  tip  of  the  one 
to  that  of  the  other.  It  is  capable  of  carrying 
away  an  ox,  just  as  an  eagle  would  carry  away  a 


FOOD    OF    BIRDS.  101 

rabbit,  but  has  been  seldom  known  to  attack 
man.  It  lives  in  the  most  elevated  situations,  and 
where  no  other  animal  or  vegetable  can  exist, 
making  its  home  on  the  very  highest  ridges  of  the 
Andes  in  South  America.  From  these  vast  heights 
it  soars  still  higher,  and  then  looks  clown  on  the 
plains,  three  or  four  miles  beneath  it,  for  its  prey. 
It  lives  upon  carrion,  and  destroys  deer,  vicunas, 
and  other  animals,  which  it  carries  to  its  "aery." 
This  immense  bird  builds  no  nest,  but  places  its 
eggs  on  the  bare  rock.  During  the  time  it  is  rear- 
ing its  young  ones  it  commits  terrible  ravages 
among  the  cattle  and  herds  of  wild  horses  with 
which  the  extensive  plains  of  its  native  country 
abound. 


Questions. 

On  what  do  birds  live  ? 

What  name  is  given  to  those  which  feed  on  flesh  ? 
Why  are  granivorous  birds  the  most  useful  ? 
Are  their  habits  social  or  gregarious  1 
Name  some  of  these  birds. 

In  what  respect  do  carnivorous  birds  differ  from  granivo- 
TOUS  ? 

Have  they  quick  senses  ? 

Give  an  example. 

Which  is  the  largest  flying  bird  1 

In  what  situation  does  the  condor  dwell  ? 


102  PLUMAGE    OF    BIRDS. 


LESSON  XVII. 

PLUMAGE    OP    BIRDS — THE  VOICE    OP   BIRDS 

SONG-BIRDS. 

THE  dress  of  birds  is,  in  many  instances,  of  the 
most  beautiful  kind.  Nothing  indeed  can  exceed 
the  splendour  and  brilliance  of  the  different  co- 
lours with  which  the  Father  of  all  things  has  clad 
the  "  winged  denizens  of  the  air."  The  skins  of 
the  birds  of  paradise,  which  are  brought  to  this 
country,  are  of  dazzling  lustre.  Some  of  them 
have  tippets  of  feathers,  spreading  over  the  breast 
and  back,  of  the  richest  hues ;  and  others  have  long 
lines  of  feathers  springing  from  beneath  their 
wings  of  the  most  delicate  structure,  or  branching 


PLUMAGE    OF    BIRDS.  103 

from  the  head  in  the  most  curious  arid  beautiful 
manner.  So  richly  are  these  creatures  clothed, 
that  although  their  bodies  are  not  larger  than  those 
of  the  blackbird,  yet  from  their  quantity  of  plu- 
mage they  appear  as  large  as  the  pigeon  ;  and  it  is 
impossible  for  them  to  fly,  except  against  the  wind. 
The  dress  of  the  humming-birds  is  equally  splen- 
did, and  when  they  are  seen  flittering  about  amidst 
the  flowers  they  are  quite  dazzling  to  the  eye. 
Some  of  our  own  birds  are  also  very  richly  drest 
The  feathers  on  the  neck  of  the  common  cock, 
when  he  is  in  complete  plumage,  possess  a  metal- 
lic lustre  hardly  to  be  matched  ;  and  the  "eyes" 
in  the  tail  feathers  of  the  peacock  are  as  splendidly 
bright  as  the  golden  breast  of  the  green  humming- 
bird. The  great  crowned  pigeon  of  the  East 
Indies  is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  pigeon  kind. 

Birds  shed  their  feathers  at  certain  periods  of  the 
year,  and  have  thus  annually  a  new  dress,  fit  to 
preserve  them  from  cold.  This  process  is  termed 
moulting,  and  birds  generally  are  weak  and  lan- 
guid whilst  it  is  going  on.  The  largest  feathers 
are  in  the  wings,  and  from  these  quills  are  made. 
Some  birds  have  no  pinions  or  quill-feathers,  and 
on  this  account  cannot  fly,  as  these  are  requisite 
to  enable  them  to  support  themselves  in  the  air. 
The  ostrich,  the  cassowary,  the  penguin,  and  some 
others  are  in  this  condition. 

Every  species  of  bird  has  its  own  peculiar  voice. 
Some  of  them  easily  imitate  the  song  of  others ; 
and  if  a  number  of  young  birds  are  shut  up  with  a 


104  PLUMAGE    OF    BIRDS. 

full  grown  one,  they  all  acquire  the  same  general 
tone  of  singing.  The  mockinvg-bird,  in  a  state  of 
nature,  imitates  the  cries  and  notes  of  its  neigh- 
bours with  the  greatest  clearness;  and  the  bullfinch 
and  canary  may  be  taught  to  pipe  a  variety  of  tunes 
quite  correctly.  The  parrot  kind  soon  learn  to 
articulate  words,  and  will  repeat  a  sentence,  or  sing 
a  song  accurately  both  as  to  words  and  tune.  A 
parrot  has  been  known  to  sing  upwards  of  fifty  dif- 
ferent songs,  keeping  time  with  its  foot,  and  never 
missing  a  word.  This  famous  bird,  when  moulting 
and  unwilling  to  sing,  turned  its  back  to  all  who 
asked  it,  and  repeatedly  said,  "Poll's  sick." 

Song-birds  are  a  delightful  race  of  creatures. 
During  the  spring  and  early  summer,  and  occa- 
sionally in  autumn,  the  whole  air  is  filled  with  the 
sound  of  their  gladness ;  not  a  bush,  brake,  shrub, 
hedge-row,  or  tree,  but  has  its  little  chorister,  each 
striving  with  the  other  in  a  rivalry  of  voices. 
The  robins,  the  orioles,  the  bobolinks,  the  blue 
birds,  the  wrens,  and  many  others,  are  either  resi- 
dents with  us,  or  periodical  visiters;  whilst  the 
"household-bird,"  the  robin  redbreast,  throughout 
the  entire  summer  warbles  its  cheerful  melody 
close  to  our  habitations. 


Questions. 

What  birds  have  the  most  beautiful  plumage  ? 
Which  of  our  birds  is  very  richly  dressed  1 
What  is  meant  by  the  term  moulting  ? 
What  is  the  state  of  birds  when  moulting  ? 


PLUMAGE    OF    BIRDS.  105 

What  is  said  of  the  bird  of  paradise  1 

What  is  said  of  the  humming-bird  I 

Which  is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  pigeon  kind  ? 

What  birds  are  without  pinions,  or  wing-feathers  ? 

Can  these  fly  * 

What  are  quills  made  of  ? 

What  birds  are  mentioned  which  are  unable  to  fly  1 

Can  birds  imitate  the  voice  or  song  of  each  other? 

WThat  bird  does  this  particularly  ? 

What  birds  are  easily  taught  to  pipe,  and  repeat  words  1 

Mention  a  wonderful  example  of  this. 

What  are  our  chief  song-birds  ? 


Great-crowned  Pigeon. 


106  BIRDS'  NESTS, 


Tailor-bird's  nest. 

LESSON  XVIIL 


BIRDS*  nests  strikingly  show  the  care  taken  by 
God  of  all  his  creatures.  The  instinct  which 
leads  to  their  construction  affords  some  of  the 
most  curious  proofs  of  animal  sagacity.  The 
beauty  of  their  contrivance,  the  selection  of  mate- 
rials, their  firmness  of  structure,  all  render  these 
" leafy  homes"  objects  of  admiration;  and  this 
more  especially,  when  we  consider  how  few  are 
the  means  possessed  by  the  little  architects,  and 
the  nature  of  the  substances  on  which  they  have  to 
work.  A  slender  bill,  a  few  twigs  and  blades  of 
dried  grass,  and  a  little  hair,  or  moss,  are  all,  and 
yet  what  a  beautiful  and  perfect  structure  is  pro^ 
duced. 

Every  species  of  bird  selects  the  fittest  materials 
for  building  its  nest,  and  also  builds  it  in  situations 


107 

where  its  wants  are  most  readily  supplied,  and 
where  it  can  best  defend  itself.  Some,  as  the 
finches,  use  light  and  simple  materials,  such  as  hay, 
roots,  leaves,  and  reeds ;  and  others,  as  the  thrush, 
in  addition  to  these,  prepare  a  sort  of  mortar  from 
clay  and  wool,  and  plaster  their  nests.  The  Cape 
titmouse  makes  its  snug  dwelling  of  vegetable 
down,  so  that  it  looks  like  flannel,  and  constructs 
at  its  side  another  little  nest  for  the  male.  In  most 
cases  the  female  is  the  builder,  though  often  assist- 
ed by  the  male  in  the  collection  of  materials. 
Excepting,  however,  amongst  the  swallows,  where 
both  work  with  equal  industry,  he  performs  a 
much  lower  part,  though  he  gathers  food  for  his 
mate,  and  cheers  her  labours  by  singing,  and  by 
every  token  of  gladness. 

The  shape  of  nests  differs  very  widely,  and  is 
much  more  simple  in  some  species  than  in  others. 
The  snipe,  the  bustard,  and  the  plover  content 
themselves  with  a  plain  bed  of  twigs  and  straw 
placed  on  the  ground,  and  sheltered  from  wet. 
The  jay,  the  sparrow,  and  the  jackdaw  build  warm 
and  comfortable  nests  in  clefts  of  rocks,  in  hollow 
trees,  and  in  old  walls.  A  number  of  singing-birds, 
as  the  wren,  build  in  the  shape  of  a  cup;  others,  as 
the  hedge-sparrow,  in  the  shape  of  an  oven;  and 
others,  in  that  of  a  purse.  The  tailor-bird  sews 
together  the  edges  of  a  leaf  to  form  its  nest,  as  re- 
presented in  the  cut  at  the  beginning  of  this  lesson. 

Birds  are  very  careful,  in  finishing  their  nests, 
to  guard  the  opening  from  wet,  and  to  make  the 


108  AGE    OF    BIRDS. 

outside  as  near  the  colour  as  possible  of  the  branch 
which  supports  them.  The  nest  of  the  long-tailed 
tit  is  shaped  like  an  egg,  and  has  only  a  very  small 
opening  at  the  top;  over  this  the  bird  fixes  a  feather 
in  a  slanting  direction,  so  as  to  carry  off  the  rain ; 
and  if  the  finger  is  passed  into  the  mouth  of  the 
nest,  several  feathers  are  found  placed  crosswise  as 
an  additional  protection. 

When  the  nests  of  birds  are  undisturbed,  and 
they  have  laid  the  usual  number  of  eggs,  which 
varies  in  different  species,  the  female  begins  to  sit. 
The  constancy  with  which  this  sitting,  or  incuba- 
tion, is  continued,  is  a  beautiful  illustration  of  the 
instinct  of  animals.  If  the  mother-bird  were  to 
absent  herself  for  a  few  hours,  and  leave  her  eggs 
exposed  to  the  cold,  the  young  ones  contained  in 
them  would  be  destroyed.  This  fact  she  has  been 
taught  by  God  ;  and,  contrary  to  all  her  usual 
habits,  she  remains  day  after  day,  very  rarely  stir- 
ring ;  and  in  some  instances  she  sits  so  closely, 
that  she  requires  feeding  by  her  mate.  We  have, 
indeed,  known  examples  in  which  the  white- 
throated  wren,  thougn  a  very  shy  and  timid  bird, 
has  suffered  herself  to  be  taken  by  the  hand,  rather 
than  abandon  her  eggs.  The  length  of  time  re- 
quired for  hatching  differs  in  different  species. 
The  common  fowl  hatches  in  about  twenty -one 
days. 

Some  birds  live  to  a  great  age.  The  eagle  and 
the  parrot  will  live, under  favourable  circumstances, 
a  hundred  years.  The  swan  is  said  to  live  two  or 


AGE    OF    BIRDS.  109 

three  centuries;  and  geese,  finches,  and  doves  have 
been  known  twenty  years  of  age. 


Questions. 

In  what  situations  do  birds  build  their  nests  ? 

Mention  the  materials  some  birds  use  for  building1. 

Which  bird  is  the  builder  "? 

How  does  the  male  bird  employ  himself  whilst  his  mate  is 
building  1 

What  way  is  the  nest  of  the  tit  preserved  from  wet  ? 

What  process  affords  a  beautiful  example  of  animal 
instinct  1 

What  would  be  the  consequence  if  the  mother  left  her  eggs 
exposed  1 

By  whom  has  she  been  taught  this  1 

To  what  age  do  some  birds  live  ? 


K 


110  SERVICES    RENDERED    BY   BIRDS. 


Secrefary. 

LESSON  XIX. 

SERVICES  RENDERED  BY  BIRDS  TO  MAN — MISCHIEF 
DONE  BY  E£RDS. 

BIRDS  render  many  important  services  to  man. 
The  vulture,  though  disgusting  in  its  habits  and 
appearance,  is  exceedingly  useful  in  hot  countries. 
It  is  called  the  scavenger,  and  clears  the  streets 
and  lanes  from  offal,  and  dead  matter  of  all  kinds, 
which  decays  rapidly,  and  which  would  make  the 
air  unwholesome  and  disagreeable.  The  crow,  the 
kite,  the  hawk,  and  the  raven,  destroy  field  mice, 
and  other  small  animals,  which,  if  permitted  to 
multiply  without  check,  would  do  great  injury  to 
the  corn.  The  secretary  and  griffon  vulture  de- 
stroy serpents. 

Insects  and  vermin  are  removed  in  vast  num- 
bers by  birds ;  and  although  the  sparrow  and  the 
rook  are  often  considered  as  troublesome  and  ex- 
pensive visiters,  yet  if  they  were  entirely  to  be 
got  rid  of,  the  land  would  be  overrun,  and  our 


MISCHIEF    DONE    BY    BIRDS.  Ill 

crops  injured  or  destroyed,  by  swarms  of  minute 
creatures,  which  these  birds  prevent  from  increas- 
ing too  fast.  The  stork  and  the  crane  keep  down 
frogs,  snakes,  and  lizards  ;  ducks  clear  the  gardens 
and  fields  of  slugs ;  and  the  martin  and  swallow 
devour  myriads  of  caterpillars,  insects,  and  grubs. 

Many  birds  destroy  weeds,  and  others  promote 
the  extension  of  useful  animals  and  vegetables  in 
a  wonderful  manner.  Trees  that  are  often  found 
growing  upon  high  walls,  or  rocks,  have  in  gene- 
ral been  planted  there  by  birds,  which  deposited 
the  seed  on  places  out  of  common  reach.  Wild 
geese,  in  their  journeys,  convey  fish-spawn  to  dis- 
tant ponds  and  lakes ;  send  sea  fowls,  which  gather 
in  thousands,  deposit  their  offal  on  bare  rocks,  and 
cjiffs  on  the  sea  coast,  from  which,  in  the  course  of 
time, a  soil  is  formed,  and  thus  they  become  covered 
with  vegetation. 

The  mischief  done  by  birds  is  very  trifling, 
when  compared  with  the  services  wrhich  they  ren- 
der us.  Birds  of  prey,  as  the  condor,  the  great 
eagle,  and  the  vulture  of  the  Alps,  now  and  then 
kill  colts,  calves,  goats,  and  sheep.  The  hawk 
picks  up  occasionally  a  stray  chicken,  or  pigeon  ; 
and  the  falcon,  the  sparrow-hawk,  and  the  butcher- 
bird sometimes  do  the  like.  The  heron,  the 
osprey,  and  other  water  fowl,  are  destructive  to 
fish,  and  fish-spawn.  Storks,  which  are  supposed, 
by  superstitious  people,  to  bring  prosperity  along 
with  them,  and  are  carefully  protected  in  some 
countries,  though  highly  useful,  are  yet  mischiev- 


112  MISCHIEF    DONE    BY    BIRDS, 

ous  birds,  and  not  only  devour  frogs,  field  mice, 
and  moles,  but  also  chickens,  larks,  bees,  fishes, 
and  fish-spawn.  Sparrows,  and  many  singing- 
birds,  do  injury  to  corn,  grapes,  and  fruit  trees  ; 
less,  in  many  instances,  however  by  eating  them, 
than  by  pulling  the  buds  to  pieces,  to  discover  in- 
sects and  grubs  ;  the  good  thus  compensating  for 
the  eviL 


Questions. 

Why  has  the  vulture  been  called  the  scavenger? 

What  useful  service  is  performed  by  crows,  kites,  and 
hawks  1 

What  would  be  the  consequence  if  rooks  and  sparrows  were 
destroyed  ? 

What  birds  clear  away  frogs,  lizards,  and  slugs  ? 

W7hat  birds  devour  so  many  caterpillars  and  insects  ? 

In  what  manner  are  trees  sometimes  planted  ? 

By  what  means  are  distant  lakes  and  rivers  stored  with 
fish? 

What  mischief  is  done  by  birds  ? 

Mention  one  or  two  instances. 

In  what  way  do  sparrows  and  other  birds  injure  corn  and 
fruit? 


STRUCTURE    OF    REPTILES.  US 


LESSON  XX. 

REPTILES STRUCTURE     OF     REPTILES CLOTHING 

OF    REPTILES POISONOUS    ANIMALS. 

REPTILES  form,  the  next  class  of  living  objects. 
The  word  reptile  signifies  in  general  any  thing 
which  creeps,  but  it  is  used  in  a  more  strict  sense 
by  naturalists.  Frogs,  lizards,  crocodiles,  alliga- 
tors, tortoises,  turtles,  and  serpents,  are  amongst 
the  reptiles. 

Reptiles  differ  very  widely  from  both  the  mam- 
malia and  from  birds  in  structure,  habits,  and 
appearance.  The  latter  have  red,  or  warm  blood, 
and  are  of  the  same  heat  as  ourselves,  and  are 
hence  called  warm-blooded  animals:  but  in  rep- 
tiles, the  blood  is  of  a  paler  colour,  and  they 
generally  feel  cold  to  the  touch,  and  have  in  con- 
sequence been  called  cold-blooded  animals.  They 
breathe,  however,  by  means  of  lungs,  which  are 
transparent,  and  of  very  fine  texture,  and  they  are 


114  .     CLOTHING    OF    REPTILES. 

capable  of  living  a  long  time  without  drawing 
breath.  Toads  have  been  discovered  alive,  though 
enclosed  in  the  trunks  of  trees,  or  in  blocks  of 
stone,  where  they  must  have  remained  torpid  pro- 
bably for  centuries.  Creatures  of  this  class  can  also 
endure  extreme  degrees  of  cold  without  perishing. 
Instances  have  been  known  in  which  frogs  imbed- 
ded in  thick  masses  of  ice,  have  been  found 
living  when  the  ice  has  thawed  gradually  and 
slowly. 

Most  reptiles  have  voice  ;  the  frog  for  example 
croaks,  and  the  serpent  makes  a  hissing  noise. 
The  organs  of  voice  are,  however,  in  general,  much 
less  developed  than  in  the  former  classes,  with 
which  the  reader  has  been  made  acquainted,  and 
some  of  them,  as  the  green  lizard,  are  quite  mute. 

The  shape  of  reptiles  is  very  various.  Croco- 
diles, tortoises,  frogs,  lizards,  and  newts  are  four- 
footed^  Serpents,  on  the  contrary,  are  without 
feet,  or  any  external  apparatus  for  motion.  These 
have,  nevertheless,  the  power  of  moving  with  great 
rapidity,  by  contracting  alternate  portions  of  their 
long  and  slender  bodies.  They  can  also  spring 
considerable  distances  by  the  same  means. 

God  has  clothed  many  of  the  reptiles  in  a  won- 
derful manner.  Some  are  cased  in  bony  coverings 
so  hard  and  so  strong,  that  scarcely  any  weight  is 
sufficient  to  crush,  or  any  blow  to  injure  them,  and 
into  these  cases,  on  the  approach  of  danger,  the 
animals  can  withdraw  their  body.  Others  are 
defended  by  numerous  horny  rings,  strong  scales, 


POISONOUS  ANIMALS.  115 

or  shields;  and  others,  that  have  naked  bodies,  are 
covered  with  thick  and  glutinous  slime.  Many 
of  them  change  their  skins  from  time  to  time. 
Some  are  remarkable  for  the  sudden  alterations  of 
colour  they  undergo.  Several  kinds  of  lizard  have 
this  peculiarity,  more  especially  the  chameleon. 
Many  of  the  serpents  have  their  bodies  beautifully 
marked  with  the  most  lively  and  brilliant  colours, 
and  when  slowly  waving  along  the  ground,  pro- 
duce very  striking  effects  on  the  eye.  Several 
lizards  are  also  equally  beautiful  in  colour. 

It  is  in  the  class  of  reptiles  that  some  poisonous 
animals  are  found.  The  viper,  the  rattle-snake, 
the  hooded-snake,  the  asp,  the  whip-snake,  and 
others,  inflict  deadly  injuries  by  their  bites,  as  they 
convey  into  the  wounds  made  by  their  teeth  a 
poison  fatal  to  life.  The  poison-fang  of  snakes  is 
one  of  the  most  singular  contrivances  in  the  whole 
animal  world ;  and  it  is  fortunate  that  these  crea- 
tures are  in  general  inoffensive  and  timid,  and  sel- 
dom use  their  deadly  weapon  against  man,  unless 
made  angry  or  injured. 


Questions. 

What  creatures  form  the  third  <;lass  in  the  animal  king- 
dom? 

Enumerate  some  of  the  reptiles. 

"What  difference  is  there  in  the  feel  of  reptiles  and  mam- 
malia'? 

How  does  this  arise  ?  and  what  name  is  given  to  reptiles  in 
consequence  ? 


116  POISONOUS   ANIMALS. 

Have  they  lungs?  and  what  is  remarkable  about  their 
breathing  ? 

In  what  situations  have  toads  and  frogs  been  found  alive  ? 

Have  all  of  them  voice  ? 

What  reptiles  are  four-footed? 

By  what  means  do  serpents  move  1 

Mention  some  of  the  ways  in  which  reptiles  are  clothed. 

Do  any  of  them  change  their  skins  1 

What  is  remarkable  about  the  colour  of  these  animals? 

In  what  class  are  poisonous  creatures  found  ? 

Enumerate  some  of  the  poisonous  reptiles. 

How  is  this  poison  applied  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  poison  fang  ? 

Are  the  poisonous  reptiles  apt  to  attack  other  animals  when 
not  provoked  1 


HABITS    OP    REPTILES. 


117 


LESSON  XXI. 

HABITS    OF    REPTILES TORTOISES FOOD    AND 

VITALITY    OF    REPTILES. 

THE  young  of  reptiles  are  produced  from  eggs, 
they  are  therefore  oviparous,  like  hirds ;  but  they 
differ  widely  from  these  in  one  respect,  namely, 
that  the  eggs  are  not  hatched  by  the  mother,  but 
by  the  warmth  of  the  sun,  after  she  has  deposited 
them  in  proper  places  for  this  purpose.  These 
places,  however,  she  selects  with  the  utmost  care, 
and  the  most  admirable  foresight,  so  that  the  eggs 
may  be  safe,  and  that  the  young  ones,  when  they 
come  out,  may  find  a  supply  of  food. 

The  greater  part  of  them  pass  the  winter  months 
in  a  state  of  torpidity.  Some  of  them,  as  frogs 
and  lizards,  are  found  occasionally  in  this  state, 


118        TORTOISES  A&D  TURTLES. 

assembled  in  considerable  numbers  at  the  bottom 
of  ponds,  or  under  heaps  of  rubbish,  or  the  foun- 
dation of  old  walls. 

Tortoises  and  turtles,  which  both  belong  to  the 
same  family,  live  partly  in  rivers,  partly  in  the 
sea,  and  partly  on  the  land.  At  certain  seasons, 
when  they  lay  their  eggs,  they  travel  great  dis- 
tances, to  reach  suitable  situations.  The  wide  current 
of  the  river  Orinoco  in  South  America,  is  covered 
for  miles  with  these  creatures  at  such  times ;  and 
in  some  West  India, islands,  where  the  smaller 
tortoises  chiefly  gather  together,  the  ground  is  co- 
vered for  great  distances  as  they  travel  to  the  sea- 
shore, for  the  purpose  of  laying  their  eggs  in  the 
sand.  They  lay  more  than  a  hundred  eggs  at 
short  intervals,  digging  shallow  pits,  and  then  co- 
vering them  with  a  layer  of  sand.  The  mother 
takes  no  further  care  of  them,  and  they  are  hatched 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  moment  the  young 
ones  escape  from  the  shell,  they  hasten  to  the 
water,  instinctively  taught  by  their  Great  Pre- 
server that  this  is  their  'proper  home  during  the 
first  weeks  of  their  existence,  and  the  only  way 
of  escaping  the  numerous  enemies  which  are  lying 
in  wait  for  them. 

Some  kinds  of  turtle,  as  the  green  and  the  log- 
gerhead, grow  to  a  vast  size,  weighing  as  much  as 
800  or  1000  pounds.  Their  eggs  and  flesh  are 
excellent  food,  and  are  largely  used  in  hot  countries, 
and  brought  to  Europe  and  the  United  States  in 
great  quantities  as  a  delicacy.  All  of  them  have 


FOOD    OF    REPTILES.  119 

strong  bony  coverings,  or  shells,  which  afford  a 
sure  protection  against  their  natural  enemies. 
The  upper  part  of  these  shells  is  composed  of  large 
horny  laminae,  or  plates,  which  are  in  some 
species  beautifully  coloured.  This,  when  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest,  is  known  under  the  name  of 
tortoise-shell,  and  is  used  for  a  variety  of  useful 
and  ornamental  purposes  ;  as  the  making  of  combs, 
boxes,  watch-cases,  and  toys. 

The  food  of  reptiles  is  very  various.  Serpents 
live  on  small  animals  ;  tortoises  on  sea  weed, 
called  turtle-grass  ;  lizards  and  toads  on  insects 
and  worms.  Nearly  all  of  them  are  capable  of 
living  for  considerable  periods  without  food. 
The  salamander  will  fast  for  several  months,  and 
the  tortoise  for  upwards  of  a  year,  and  neither  of 
them  appear  to  lose  much  bulk  by  their  want  of 
food.  The  tenacity  with  which  these  cold-blooded 
animals  cling  to  life  is  also  very  remarkable  ;  they 
often  recover  from  the  most  dreadful  injuries,  and 
sometimes  even  when  a  part  of  their  body  has 
been  destroyed,  as  a  leg  or  a  tail,  it  is  reproduced 
in  the  course  of  a  few  months. 

It  is  in  warm  climates  that  reptiles  multiply  most, 
and  arrive  at  an  immense  size,  and  that  the  poison 
of  the  venomous  kinds  becomes  most  active  and 
pernicious. 

The  obscure  recesses  inhabited  by  the  majority 
of  the  reptile  tribes  are  far  from  being  thoroughly 
explored.  How  many  of  these  still  unknown 
beings  may  lie  concealed  in  the  depths  of  inland 


120  POOD    OF    REPTILES. 

waters,  of  vast  and  desert  marshes,  and  of  imper- 
vious wilds  of  vegetation  !  How  many  may  creep 
yet  unheeded  amidst  the  gorges  of  the  Alpine 
mountains,  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  of  the  Andes! 


Questions. 

In  what  way  do  reptiles  produce  their  young1? 

How  does  the  mother  select  places  for  depositing  her  eggs  1 

In  what  situations  do  turtles  live  1 

What  is  remarkable  in  these  animals  when  about  to  lay 
their  eggs  ? 

Where  are  they  sometimes  seen  in  vast  numbers  1 

How  many  eggs  do  turtles  lay?  and  what  kind  of  nest  are 
they  placed  in  1 

What  is  singular  about  the  young  of  turtle  1 

How  are  tortoises  protected  T 

What  is  tortoise-shell,  and  for  what  is  it  used  1 

What  is  singular  among  reptiles  with  respect  to  eating  ^ 

Are  they  very  tenacious  of  life  ? 

Where  do  reptiles  multiply  most  1 


THE    CROCODILE. 


121 


LESSON  XXII. 

AGE    OF    REPTILES CROCODILE — ^BOA TOAD 

SALAMANDER. 

MANY  of  the  reptiles  grow  slowly,  and  are  very 
long-lived;  indeed,  a  general  remark  may  be  made 
here,  which  the  reader  must  bear  in  mind:  through- 
out the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdom,  whenever 
an  object  grows  to  a  great  size,  or  grows  very 
slowly,  it  invariably  lives  to  a  great  age.  Thus, 
the  rnighty  whale,  which  attains  so  vast  a  magni- 
tude, is  supposed  to  live  some  hundreds  of  years ; 
and  the  oak,  the  king  of  our  forests,  which  in- 
creases in  bulk  very  slowly,  will  live  for  a  thousand 
years,  and  witness  many  generations  of  quick- 
growing  trees  perish  around  it,  whilst  it  is  in  its 
prime.  Tortoises  have  been  known  upwards  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty  years  old,  and  it  is-  pro- 
bable that  the  crocodile  and  the  larger  snakes  live 
to  a  very  great  age  in  their  native  haunts. 

The  largest  animal  living  in  fresh  water  is  the 
crocodile,  one  of  the  reptiles.  It  is  a  native  of  hot 
countries,  and  in  some  situations  is  found  in  great 


122  THE    CROCODILE — THE    BOA. 

abundance.  It  sometimes  grows  to  the  length 
of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  and  is  possessed  of  great 
strength,  and  carries  off  with  ease  a  man,  a  tiger, 
or  an  ox.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  being  co- 
vered with  hard  scales,  it  is  a  dangerous  enemy, 
though  its  motions  are  not  very  quick.  It  resorts 
chiefly  to  swampy  grounds  covered  with  weeds, 
and  inland  lakes,  but  never  approaches  the  salt 
water.  When  waiting  for  prey,  it  generally  lies 
motionless  on  the  water,  looking  like  a  log  of  de- 
cayed wood,  near  places  where  animals  come  to 
drink,  upon  which  it  seizes  and  drags  to  the  bot- 
tom. The  female  lays  about  a  hundred  eggs,  and 
is  so  prolific,  that  were  it  not  that  snakes  of  all 
kinds  are  fond  of  their  eggs,  and  destroy  vast 
numbers,  the  countries  they  inhabit  would  be 
overrun  by  them.  In  Egypt,  a  little  animal  called 
the  ichneumon  has  a  wonderful  instinct  for  finding 
the  nests  of  crocodiles,  and  destroys  great  num- 
bers. Though  these  creatures  are  of  such  immense 
bulk,  their  eggs  are  hardly  so  large  as  those  of  the 
goose,  and  are  covered  by  a  thick  leather-like  skin. 
Alligators,  which  abound  in  South  America,  are 
very  similar  in  habits  and  appearance  to  crocodiles, 
and  belong  to  the  same  family. 

The  boa  constrictor,  another  of  the  reptiles, 
attains  a  great  length.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  ser- 
pents, and  kills  its  prey  by  folding  itself  round  and 
round  its  victim  with  the  utmost  quickness,  and 
then  crushing  it  to  pieces.  Its  muscles  are  ex- 
ceedingly powerful,  and  capable  of  pressing  almost 
any  animal  to  death. 


THE    TOAD.  123 

The  common  toad  is  popularly  looked  upon  as 
being  venomous.  This  is  an  error,  as  it  is,  in  fact, 
a  harmless  and  timid  creature,  and  very  useful  in 
gardens.  It  feeds  chiefly  upon  insects,  which  it 
catches  with  the  most  singular  dexterity.  Crouch- 
ed behind  a  cabbage-leaf,  it  watches  attentively  till 
a  fly  settles  within  its  reach,  when  in  an  instant,  it 
jerks  out  its  long  tongue,  and  very  seldom  fails  to 
strike  it.  This  is  done  so  quickly,  that  the  eye 
can  hardly  perceive  the  motion.  To  secure  the 
insect,  its  tongue  is  covered  with  a  thick  glutinous 
saliva,  very  sticky,  and  which  holds  it,  as  if  it  were 
bird-lime.  The  eye  of  the  toad  is  particularly 
bright  and  beautiful,  so  much  so  indeed,  that  it  has 
been  said  to  "wear  a  jewel "  in  its  head.  It  is  ca- 
pable of  being  tamed,  and  rendered  quite  familiar. 

The  salamanders  have  a  lengthened  body,  four 
feet,  and  a  long  tail,  which  gives  them  the  general 
form  of  lizards,  and  they  were  formerly  placed  in 
that  order ;  but  they  have  all  the  characters  of  the 
frogs. 

The  name  of  the  salamander,  says  Lacepede,  has 
been  celebrated  from  antiquity,  and  embellished 
with  the  tints  of  fable  in  all  ages.  It  was  on  the 
fortunate  soil  of  ancient  Greece,  in  the  bosom  of  a 
wise  and  warlike  nation,  whose  imagination,  fa- 
voured by  a  happy  climate,  exaggerated  even  the 
wonders  of  creative  power,  that  the  reputation  of 
the  salamander  originated,  and  that  an  immortal 
and  generally  adopted  name  was  employed  to  cha- 
racterize a  small  reptile,  which  has  usurped  the 


124  THE    SALAMANDER. 

most  universal  celebrity;  and  is  even  still  one  of 
the  objects  of  the  curiosity  of  man. 

On  the  sides  of  the  common  salamander  of 
France  and  Germany  are  ranges  of  tubercles,  from 
which,  in  time  of  danger,  a  bitter  milky  fluid  oozes, 
of  a  powerful  odour,  and  poisonous  to  weak  ani- 
mals. This  probably  has  given  rise  to  the  fable, 
that  the  salamander  can  resist  the  flames. 


Questions. 

What  general  remark  is  applicable  to  the  growth  and  size 
of  animals  ? 

How  long  have  tortoises  been  known  to  live  ? 

Where  are  crocodiles  chiefly  found  ? 

To  what  size  do  they  grow  1 

Are  they  ever  found  in  salt  water  1 

How  do  they  catch  their  prey  1 

How  many  eggs,  and  of  what  size,  does  the  female  lay] 

What  little  animal  in  particular  is  very  destructive  to  their 
eggs? 

In  what  way  does  the  boa  destroy  animals? 

Describe  the  manner  in  which  toads  catch  insects. 

By  what  means  does  it  do  this  1 

What  is  said  of  the  salamander  ? 


FISHES    IN    GENERAL.  125 


LESSON  XXIII. 

PISHES  IN   GENERAL GILLS FORM   AND    COLOURS 

HABITS   AND    CHARACTER EYES EARS 

MIGRATIONS. 

THE  next  class  of  living  beings  embraces  the 
fishes.  These  dwell  only  in  the  water,  and 
differ  from  the  three  preceding  classes  in  their 
mode  of  breathing.  Fish  have  no  lungs,  but 
in  their  stead  have  on  each  side  of  the  neck  a 
very  curious  and  delicately  fringed  organ  called 
the  gills.  By  means  of  these,  fish  breathe,  that 
is,  a  constant  stream  of  water  is  passed  over  them, 
the  air  contained  in  which  operates  much  in 
the  same  way  as  when  taken  into  our  lungs. 

The  form  of  fish  is  in  general  very  pleasing, 
and  their  colours  are  in  many  instances  strikingly 
beautiful,  the  skin  being  either  glossy,  or  covered 
L2 


126  FISHES    IN    GENERAL. 

with  brilliant  scales,  sometimes  golden,  sometimes 
silvery,  and  in  others,  of  the  finest  tints  of  blue 
and  green.  ' 

Fish  are  generally  social  in  their  habits,  and 
may  be  seen  glancing  in  the  sun  in  large  shoals  ; 
they  are  also  very  sportive  and  playful,  are  full  of 
activity  and  animation,  and  seem  happy  creatures. 
Their  character  in  a  general  way  is  that  of  gentle- 
ness and  harmlessness  ;  and  they  show  no  marks 
of  cruelty  towards  one  another,  beyond  satisfying 
the  common  instinct  for  taking  food.  There 
are,  indeed,  in  the  sea,  as  on  the  land,  some  fierce 
and  voracious  creatures,  which  are  objects  of 
terror  ;  but  those  which  are  most  abundant,  and 
which  come  more  immediately  under  our  notice, 
are  gentle  and  beautiful  creatures,  in  no  way 
to  be  feared,  but  very  much  to  be  admired. 

The  eyes  of  fish  differ  from  our  own  in  their 
shape  and  structure  ;  as  they  live  in  a  different 
element,  the  care  and  wisdom  of  their  Creator 
has  been  shown  in  the  way  their  different  organs 
are  adapted  to  it.  Had  their  eyes  been  con- 
structed like  those  of  the  mammalia,  they  would 
not  have  been  able  to  see  accurately,  and  would 
therefore  have  been  unable  to  catch  their  prey. 
This  has  been  cared  for,  and  fish  see  as  well  in 
the  water  as  other  animals  see  in  the  air. 

Fish  have  no  voice,  and  no  external  organs  of 
hearing  ;  yet  a  few  utter  slight  sounds,  as  the 
tunny,  and  the  ling  :  and  many  of  them  obviously 


FISHES   IN    GENERAL.  127 

hear,  as  carp  may  be  trained  to  assemble  at  the 
sound  of  a  bell. 

Fish  are  produced  from  eggs,  and  in  amazing 
numbers  ;  a  single  fish  often  containing  many  thou- 
sand eggs,  roe,  or  spawn,  as  they  are  termed. 
Many  kinds  migrate,  as  the  period  for  spawning 
approaches,  to  great  distances,  often  crossing  wide 
seas,  in  order  to  reach  fit  places  for  this  process. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  sand  or  gravel,  and 
hatched  by  the  warmth  of  the  sun.  The  young 
fish,  or/ry,  are  capable  of  supporting  themselves 
the  moment  they  leave  the  egg  ;  and  governed 
by  a  wonderful  instinct,  though  they  have  never 
known  a  parent,  they  have  immediately  the  same 
habits,  seek  the  same  haunts,  and  take  the  same 
means  to  defend  themselves. 

Fish  live  to  a  great  age,  and  many  of  them 
attain  considerable  sizes. 


Questions. 

What  creatures  form  the  fourth  class  in  the  animal  king- 
dom 1 

In  what  respect  do  they  differ  from  the  first  three  classes  ? 

What  organs  have  fish  in  the  place  of  lungs  ? 

Are  the  forms  and  coldurs  pleasing  ] 

Are  they  social  in  their  habits  1 

What  is  their  general  character  ? 

Have  fish  eyes  like  our  own  1 

Have  they  voice  1 

In  what  way  are  the  young  of  fish  produced  1 

How  are  the  eggs  or  spawn  hatched  ? 

What  is  singular  about  the  fry,  or  young  fish  1 


128  FINS    OP    PISH. 

LESSON  XXIV. 

PINS  OP   PISH AIR-BLADDER ELECTRIC    PISH. 

THE  provision  made  to  enable  fish  to  move 
in  the  water  is  very  beautiful  ;  this  consists  of 
parts  called  fins ;  and  these  serve  the  same  pur- 
poses as  the  wings  of  birds,  and  the  legs  and  arms 
of  the  mammalia.  The  situation  of  these  fins  upon 
the  body,  and  their  number,  vary  according  to 
the  habits  and  species  ;  the  common  trout  having 
eight,  two  on  the  back,  two  on  the  breast,  two  on 
the  under  part  of  the  body,  and  two  single  ones  ; 
whilst  the  common  eel  Jias  no  fins  on  the  breast. 
In  the  haddock,  the  fins,  which  in  the  trout  are 
placed  on  the  breast,  are  fixed  on  the  throat  ; 
and  in  the  perch,  the  same  fins  are  fixed  close 
to  the  pectoral  or  breast-fins.  The  fins  differ 
greatly  in  size,  and  are  made  up  of  bony  spines, 
connected  together  by  a  membrane,  and  are 
moved  by  strong  muscles,  just  in  the  same  way 
as  the  wings  of  birds  and  our  arms.  By  means 
of  these  fins,  the  fish,  which  may  be  said  to  be 
suspended  in  the  water,  can  move  in  all  direc- 
tions easily  and  with  great  velocity.  Many  fish, 
which  feed  partly  on  insects,  can  leap  to  a  consi- 
derable height  out  of  the  water  in  pursuit  of 
them.  This  is  done  by  means  of  the  tail,  which 
is  reckoned  as  a  fin,  and  is  also  used  as  a  rudder 
to  direct  their  motions.  In  manjr  instances  this 


ELECTRIC    FISH.  129 

is  a  very  powerful  instrument  ;  and,  in  the  larger 
kinds  of  fish,  can  inflict  severe,  and  even  fatal 
blows. 

Another  very  curious  organ  with  which  many 
fish  are  furnished,  is  the  air-bladder  :  this  is 
double,  and  being  placed  within  their  bodies,  gives 
them  the  power  of  ascending  or  descending  in  the 
water  without  any  apparent  effort.  It  renders 
the  body,  too,  exceedingly  buoyant,  and  about 
the  same  weight  as  the  water  in  which  they  dwell. 
Such  fish  as  are  unprovided  with  this  organ  are 
generally  found  at  the  bottom  of  ponds,  lakes,  and 
seas,  as  the  different  kinds  of  flat  fish.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  fish  has  the  power  of  secreting  or 
forming  air  to  fill  this  bladder,  and  we  know  of 
no  other  animal  which  possesses  any  thing  of  the 
kind. 

Several  fish  are  provided,  as  a  means  of  defence, 
with  a  species  of  electric  or  galvanic  battery, 
which  acts  just  like  a  shock  from  an  electrical  ma- 
chine. This  is  a  very  extraordinary  provision, 
and  is  possessed  in  great  perfection  by  the  torpedo 
and  the  gymnote,  or  electrical  eel.  This  last  crea- 
ture abounds  in  the  rivers  and  ponds  of  some  parts 
of  South  America,  and  grows  to  a  large  size.  So 
powerful  is  the  shock  they  are  capable  of  giving, 
as  to  prove  almost  fatal  both  to  man  and  animals  : 
mules  and  oxen,  when  about  to  cross  a  stream  in- 
fested by  these  creatures,  take  the  greatest  precau- 
tion to  avoid  being  entangled  in  their  folds,  and 
exhibit  every  mark  of  terror  when  attacked  by 


130  ELECTRIC    FISH. 

them.  They  fold  themselves  round  their  legs  and 
bodies,  and  by  a  series  of  electric  discharges,  so 
benumb  and  torture  the  animals  that  they  fall  down 
in  the  water,  and  are  drowned.  Great  numbers 
of  mules  are  thus  lost  annually,  in  some  situations 


Questions. 

By  what  means  do  fish  move  in  the  water  1 

Are  these  fins  alike  in  number  and  situation  on  all  kinds 
offish? 

How  many  fins  has  the  trout  ? 

In  what  respect  do  the  fins  of  the  haddock  and  perch  differ 
from  those  of  the  trout! 

How  are  fish  enabled  to  leap  out  of  the  water  T 

Of  what  service  is  the  air-bladder  ? 

How  is  it  filled  with  air  1 

Have  any  other  animals  any  thing  of  this  kind  1 

What  singular  provision  have  some  fish  for  their  defence  1 

In  what  way  does  this  act  upon  the  body  ? 

What  fish  possess  this  singular  means  ? 

Where  is  the  gymnote  found,  and  what  is  observable  in 
animals  when  in  its  neighbourhood  ? 

In  what  way  do  they  destroy  mules  1 


Gymnote. 


HERRINGS — SALMON.  131 

LESSON  XXV. 

HERRINGS SALMON RE  MORA. 

THE  providence  of  God  has  stored  the  waters 
with  proofs  of  his  bountiful  goodness.  Some  of 
these  are  of  the  greatest  utility  to  man,  and 
amongst  the  rest,  one  single  species  of  fish  annu- 
ally feeds  many  thousand  people.  This  is  the 
herring,  which,  although  millions  are  destroyed 
every  year  for  our  use,  appears  as  abundant  as 
ever.  Our  Almighty  Benefactor  has  so  ordained, 
that  that  species  of  fish  should  increase  and  mul- 
tiply so  rapidly  as  to  defy  all  ravages,  and  season 
after  season  it  issues  from  the  Polar  Seas  in  vast 
shoals,  which  are  so  broad  and  so  deep  that  they 
alter  the  very  appearance  of  the  ocean. 

These  shoals  are  divided  into  columns  five  or 
six  miles  in  length,  and  three  or  four  in  breadth, 
which  drive  the  water  before  them  in  a  continued 
ripple.  In  fine  weather,  these  immense  floating 
islands  glisten  in  the  sun,  and  reflect  a  variety  ot 
splendid  colours.  Each  column  is  led  by  a  her- 
ring larger  in  size  than  the  rest,  which  seems  to 
govern  their  motions,  and  to  act  as  leader. 

Herrings,  in  their  annual  migration,  appear 
off  the  Shetland  islands  in  April  and  May  ;  one 
great  shoal  then  takes  the  eastern,  and  another 
the  western,  side  of  Great  Britain.  The  station 
for  fishing  is  near  the  Hebrides  ;  but  they  are 


1 32  HERRINGS SALMON. 

caught  in  great  abundance  all  along  the  English 
and  Irish  coasts.  Herrings  are  important  articles 
of  commerce  ;  nearly  400,000  barrels  being 
cured  annually  in  Great  Britain,  of  which  a 
considerable  portion  are  sent  to  other  countries, 
in  exchange  for  money  or  useful  articles  of  a 
different  kind.  Herrings  are  both  a  wholesome 
and  nutritious  food,  whether  eaten  fresh,  pickled, 
or  smoked. 

The  salmon  is  another  fish  of  the  utmost  value 
as  an  article  of  commerce,  and  of  food,  being 
by  far  the  most  delicate  fish  taken  in  our  rivers. 
It  grows  to  a  considerable  size,  sometimes  weigh- 
ing fifty  or  sixty  pounds.  At  a  certain  season  of 
the  year  this  fish,  led  by  a  singular  instinct,  begins  to 
ascend  our  streams  from  the  sea,  and  makes  its  way 
as  far  up  as  there  is  water  to  cover  it,  often  leap- 
ing over  weirs  and  ledges  of  rocks  several  feet  in 
height,  and  overcoming  all  obstacles  in  the  most 
extraordinary  manner.  When  it  has  reached  a 
shallow  part  of  the  river,  the  male  and  female 
form  a  trench  in  the  gravel,  hollowing  it  out 
with  their  snouts  and  shoulders  to  the  length  of 
eight  or  nine  feet,  and  in  this  the  female  deposits 
her  eggs  to  the  amount  of  17  or  18,000.  After 
this  is  done,  which  occupies  several  days,  both 
the  fish  employ  themselves  diligently  in  covering 
these  up  carefully,  in  order  to  protect  them  from 
other  fish,  and  from  water-fowl,  which  greedily 
devour  them.  The  eggs  are  then  left  by  the 
parents,  and  after  some  time,  the  fry,  or  young 


SUCKING-FISH.  133 

i 

fish,  are  formed,  and  appear  in  vast  numbers, 
keeping  near  the  shores,  and  gradually  descending 
the  rivers,  till  the  floods  carry  them  out  into  the 
sea. 

The  remora,  or  sucking-fish,  is  another  singular 
instance  of  the  care  taken  by  God  of  his  creatures. 
This  animal  lives  in  the  sea,  and  having  very  small 
fins,  is  incapable  of  quick  motions.  To  compen- 
sate it,  however,  for  this  weakness,  it  has,  on  the 
crown  of  its  head,  a  curious  apparatus,  by  which 
it  can  fix  itself  firmly  to  any  larger  body,  as  a  ship, 
or  another  fish,  and  thus  be  carried  along  with  it 


Questions. 

From  what  seas  do  herrings  issue  every  year  ? 

In  what  manner  do  they  make  their  appearance  1 

What  are  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  columns  of  herrings, 
and  how  are  they  led  ? 

In  what  month  do  they  come  to  us  1 

Near  what  islands  is  the  principal  fishing- station  1 

What  number  of  barrels  of  herrings  are  cured  annually  in 
Great  Britain  1 

At  what  period  of  the  year  do  salmon  ascend  our  rivers  ? 

For  what  purpose  do  they  do  this  ? 

Is  any  care  taken  by  the  fish  in  depositing  their  eggs  or 
spawn  1 

Mention  how  this  is  done,  and  whether  they  are  left 
exposed. 

At  what  time  do  the  young  fish  appear  ? 

What  is  remarkable  about  the  remora  ? 


M 


134  INSECTS   IN    GENERAL. 


LESSON  XXVI. 

INSECTS    IN   GENERAL BREATHING EYES 

FEELERS. 

THE  power  and  wisdom  of  the  Supreme  Being 
are  made  manifest  in  a  wonderful  manner  by  the 
insect  world.  We  cannot  ramble  on  a  summer 
evening,  but  we  find  the  air  filled  with  sportive 
and  happy  creatures.  Every  leaf,  every  branch, 
every  pool,  every  bank,  abounds  with  animal  life ; 
and  every  insect,  however  minute,  is  seen  pursuing 
with  unerring  regularity  its  settled  course  for  ac- 
tion, and  fulfilling  some  important  purpose  for 
which  it  has  been  created.  Some  are  busy  sup- 
plying their  wants,  others  in  providing  for  their 
offspring,  others  again,  exerting  the  most  singular 
and  wise  precautions  to  screen  themselves  or  their 
eggs  from  danger,  and  others  in  laying  up  stores 
of  provisions.  Their  endless  variety  of  form,  their 
endless  number,  and  the  care  which  has  been  be- 
stowed upon  them,  fill  us  with  astonishment  and 
joy,  for  all  seem  happy,  and  all  full  of  enjoyment. 


EYES   OP    INSECTS.  135 

nsects,  under  which  name  are  included  flies, 
beetles,  butterflies,  and  others,  form  the  fifth  class, 
into  which  all  living  creatures  have  been  divided. 
They  differ  very  much  from  the  four  classes  the 
reader  has  already  had  described,  both  in  their 
structure,  their  forms,  their  habits,  and  their  ap- 
pearance. They  have  been  called  articulated 
animals,  from  being  made  up  of  many  jointed 
parts,  without  having  a  regular  system  of  bones. 
Mammalia,  birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes,  breathe  either 
by  means  of  lungs  or  gills.  Insects  have  nothing 
of  this  sort,  but  have,  in  their  place,  a  number  of 
little  breathing-holes,  called  spiracula,  placed 
along  their  bodies,  through  which  the  air  passes,  as 
all  animals,  however  various  their  structure,  have 
organs  of  respiration,  these  being  essential  to  animal 
life. 

The  formation  of  the  eyes  of  insects  is  very 
curious.  Those  of  other  animals  are  single,  and 
seldom  exceed  two,  but  in  this  class,  what  appears 
to  be  a  single  eye  is,  in  fact,  a  collection  of  eyes, 
being  made  up  of  a  number  of  distinct  lenses,  look- 
ing in  all  directions.  These  creatures  have,  there- 
fore, no  need  to  turn  their  heads  in  any  way,  in 
order  to  see  either  upwards  or  downwards,  to  the 
right  or  to  the  left.  The  two  large  eyes  of  the 
dragon-fly,  which  is  so  common  with  us,  have 
been  supposed  to  contain  above  20,000  of  these 
little  eyes  or  lenses.  Spiders,  which  form  a  class 
of  themselves,  have  eight  separate  eyes,  two  on 
the  top  of  the  head,  two  forward,  two  backwards, 


136  PEELERS. 

and  two  in  front,  so  that  they  can  look  nearly  all 
round  them  at  the  same  moment,  and  are  thus 
enabled  to  see  the  fly  on  which  they  feed,  on  what- 
ever side  it  may  happen  to  be. 

Insects  are  provided  with  very  singular  organs 
of  feeling.  These  are  called  antennae,  and  are 
fixed  on  the  head,  like  long  delicate  horns.  They 
are  hollow,  jointed,  and  moveable,  and  in  some 
instances  -of  great  length  and  beauty.  They  are 
very  sensible,  and  with  them  these  creatures  feel 
their  way,  as  the  bodies  of  many  of  them  are 
covered  with  hard  and  insensible  coats,  either  in 
the  shape  of  hairs,  scales,  or  horny  membranes. 
In  addition  to  the  antennae,  insects  have  other  feel- 
ers ranged  round  the  mouth,  which  serve  to  catch 
their  prey,  and  also  as  hands  to  hold  it,  whilst  they 
are  engaged  in  eating. 


Questions. 

What  is  made  strikingly  manifest  by  the  insect  world  ? 

Of  what  does  the  fifth  class  in  the  animal  kingdom  consist  ? 

What  name  has  been  given  to  insects  from  their  jointed 
structure  1 

In  what  respect  do  they  differ  from  the  mammalia,  as  to 
their  breathing "? 

How  do  they  breathe  % 

Are  the  eyes  of  insects  different  from  those  of  other  crea 
tures  ? 

How  are  they  constructed  ? 

What  advantages  do  insects  derive  from  this  ? 

How  many  eyes  has  the  spider  1 

What  are  antennae,  and  what  are  they  like  ? 

What  is  their  use  ? 

Have  insects  other  feelers  besides  antenna  ? 


WINGS    OF    INSECTS.  137 

LESSON  XXVII. 

TRUNK  OR  TONGUE  OP  INSECTS WINGS FEET. 

THE  tongue  of  insects  is  a  highly  curious  instru- 
ment, and  should  be  rather  termed  a  proboscis  or 
trunk.  A  good  idea  may  be  had  of  its  uses  and 
form,  by  looking  at  that  of  the  huge  elephant 
Many  insects  live  chiefly  on  honey  and  other 
liquids,  and  in  these  instances  the  proboscis  serves 
as  a  syringe  or  sucking-pump.  The  proboscis  of 
butterflies  is  very  long,  and  curled  up,  like  a  spiral 
wire.  This  the  creature  can  unfold  at  pleasure, 
and  insert  into  flowers,  at  the  bottom  of  which  the 
honey  lies.  The  bee  may  be  observed,  ranging 
from  "flower  to  flower,"  busily  thrusting  its 
tongue  into  them,  and  loading  itself  with  sweets. 
The  common  fly  has  a  proboscis  shaped  like  a  club, 
through  which  it  will  speedily  imbibe  a  drop  of 
milk,  or  a  few  grains  of  sugar.  It  is  curious  to 
watch  how  cleverly  it  uses  this  organ,  and  how 
busy  it  generally  is  with  it.  Other  insects,  as  the 
gad-fly  and  the  gnat,  feed  chiefly  upon  the  blood 
or  juices  of  larger  animals.  In  these  the  tongue 
serves  as  a  borer  to  pierce  the  skin,  which  has  first 
to  be  penetrated,  before  they  can  reach  their  food. 
When  this  is  done,  then  it  becomes  a  sucker,  and 
draws  the  liquids  into  their  stomachs. 

Many  insects  are  provided  with  wings  of  the 
most  beautiful  texture  and  appearance.  Those  of 


138  LEGS. 

the  dragon-fly  and  the  house-fly  are  of  fine  yet 
strong  texture.  Some  of  the  beetles  have  wings 
of  the  most  surprising  delicacy,  which  are  folded 
in  a  wonderful  manner  under  strong  cases,  or  ely- 
tra, when  they  are  at  rest.  The  finest  gauze  that 
can  possibly  be  made  is  coarse  in  comparison  with 
these  fine  and  transparent  membranes,  and  no  hand 
but  the  hand  of  God  could  make  such  curious  and 
beautiful  structures.  The  wings  of  butterflies  are 
covered  with  minute  scales  of  the  most  brilliant 
colours,  which  resemble  small  feathers.  Many  of 
these  are  singularly  elegant  creatures,  and  have 
been  well  called  "flying  flowers."  One  of  our 
poets,  in  speaking  of  the  yellow  spring  butterfly, 
has  very  aptly  and  beautifully  said : — 

The  butterfly 

That  o'er  the  primrose  restlessly, 
Itself  a  flying  primrose,  hovers. 

The  wings  of  insects  are  moved  by  muscles,  like 
those  of  birds.  It  is  astonishing  how  fast  they  can 
fly.  A  swarm  of  common  flies  will  accompany  a 
horse  at  full  gallop,  gambolling  round  its  head,  and 
occasionally  settling  upon  it,  all  apparently  without 
effort. 

The  number  of  legs  possessed  by  insects,  is 
another  of  their  peculiarities.  None  of  them  have 
less  than  six,  and  others  have  twelve,  twenty-four, 
thirty,  forty,  fifty,  one  hundred,  and  even  more. 
The  feet  of  the  house-fly  are  very  curious.  This 
active  creature  walks  with  the  greatest  steadiness 


LEGS.  139 

along  the  smoothest  surfaces,  and  it  makes  no  dif- 
ference whether  the  body  is  upwards  or  down- 
wards. To  enable  it  to  do  this,  its  feet  are  so 
made,  that  when  placed  flat,  a  slight  vacuum  may 
be  produced  in  the  centre,  which  holds  the  edges 
fast,  just  in  the  same  way  that  the  hand  sticks  to 
a  wetted  slab,  when  the  palm  is  a  little  raised,  and 
as  boys  lift  up  stones  by  a  piece  of  moistened  lea- 
ther with  a  string  through  it. 


Questions. 

How  may  we  obtain  an  idea  of  the  trunk  or  proboscis  of 
insects  ? 

For  what  is  this  used  by  such  insects  as  feed  on  honey,  as 
the  butterfly  and  bees  ? 

What  shape  is  the  trunk  in  the  common  house-fly  1 

What  insects  use  their  trunk  both  as  a  borer  and  a  pump  ? 

Are  the  wings  of  insects  of  very  beautiful  texture  ? 

What  insects  have  particularly  delicate  wings,  and  how 
are  these  defended  ? 

With  what  are  the  wings  of  butterflies  covered  ? 

How  are  these  wings  moved  1 

How  many  legs  are  insects  provided  with  ? 

What  enables  the  fly  to  walk  on  smooth  surfaces  ? 

Can  you  describe  how  this  is  done  ? 


140 


HABITS    OP    INSECTS. 


LESSON  XXVIII. 

HABITS    OF    INSECTS CARPENTER   ANTS BEES. 

MANY  insects  make  themselves  habitations  with 
great  ingenuity  and  labour.  The  black  carpen- 
ter ant  hollows  out  cells  arid  passages  in  the 
trunks  and  roots  of  trees  of  very  hard  texture. 
It  eats  away  the  fibres  with  its  nippers,  and 
works  with  the  utmost  nicety.  When  a  piece 
of  wood  is  examined  which  has  been  colonized 
by  these  little  creatures,  it  presents  a  most  curious 
appearance,  being  completely  honey-combed,  and 
the  partitions  between  the  cells  are  far  thinner 
than  paper.  What  is  very  singular  is,  that  these 
excellent  carpenters  never  spoil  their  work  nor 
open  one  cell  into  another,  every  one  being  found 


BEES.  141 

quite  perfect  and  smooth.  In  these  wonderful 
houses  we  find  numerous  arcades  and  galleries, 
leading  to  the  various  divisions,  all  finished  with 
the  nicest  skill ;  and  though  the  whole  trunk  of  a 
tree  seems  bored  in  every  direction,  it  is  never- 
theless left  quite  strong,  and  generally  lives,  as  if 
nothing  had  touched  it.  These  colonies  are  ama- 
zingly populous,  upwards  of  a  million  of  inhabit- 
ants being  congregated  in  very  small  space. 

The  habits  of  bees  are  amongst  the  most 
interesting  of  any  in  the  animal  kingdom.  The 
instinct  they  display  in  a  variety  of  actions, 
whether  in  a  wild  or  domesticated  state,  is  a 
source  of  continual  wonder  and  admiration. 
The  structure  of  their  cells,  the  treatment  of 
their  eggs,  the  government  of  their  hives,  and 
their  storing  of  food,  are  equally  remarkable. 

Every  bee-hive  contains  three  different  sets  of 
inhabitants.  A  queen  bee,  drones  or  male,  bees, 
and  neuters  or  workers.  There  is  never  more 
than  one  queen  ;  if  another  is  formed,  it  is  de- 
stroyed at  once,  and  its  body  removed.  The 
number  of  drones  is  about  six  or  seven  hundred 
in  each  hive,  and  these  are  regularly  killed  by 
the  workers  in  August.  This  is  done,  in  order 
that  the  winter  stock  of  food  may  be  preserved, 
and  not  eaten  by  a  greater  number  than  are  ac- 
tually useful. 

The  working-bees  perform  all  the  labour  of 
building,  collecting  materials,  preserving  the  ho- 
ney, and  tending  the  young.  When  they  are 


142  BEES. 

constructing  their  houses,  they  first  gather  a 
kind  of  cement  from  the  gumrny  buds  of  flowers, 
which  they  knead  into  little  balls  with  their 
proboscis  and  legs,  and  carry  it  away  to  stop  up 
all  the  crevices,  and  make  the  hive  safe  from 
intruders.  This  done,  they  next  fetch  matter 
for  wax.  This  is  made  from  the  fine  dust  or 
pollen  found  in  flowers,  which  they  first  eat,  and 
it  is  then  changed  into  wax  in  the  stomach. 
From  this  wax,  one  set  of  workers  construct 
cells,  having  six  sides,  and  of  the  most  beautiful 
regularity.  By  giving  them  this  shape,  the 
greatest  number  possible  are  contained  in  any 
given  space,  a  question  which  long  puzzled  the 
wisest  men,  but  which  these  creatures,  taught 
by  their  own  Divine  Author,  had  practised  from 
the  first  hour  of  their  creation.  These  cells  are 
used  partly  to  hold  honey,  closely  covered  by 
lids,  and  partly  as  nests,  in  which  to  place  the 
eggs. 

When  a  number  of  cells  are  completed,  the 
queen  bee  begins  to  lay  her  eggs.  During  this 
process  she  is  attentively  fed  and  followed  by 
the  workers,  which  remove  every  egg,  and  place 
it  in  a  separate  cell.  During  the  summer,  it  has 
been  calculated  that  'a  single  queen  will  produce 
40,000  eggs.  She  first  lays  the  eggs  which  are 
to  give  birth  to  working  bees,  then  the  drones, 
and  lastly,  a  few  are  stored  away  in  cells  set 
apart  for  this  particular  purpose,  for  a  supply  of 
queens,  lest  the  present  sovereign  should  be 


BEES.  143 

destroyed,  or  the  hive  should  become  so  popu- 
lous, that  a  part  of  its  inhabitants  may  have  to 
remove. 

The  eggs  which  have  been  deposited  in  the 
cells,  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  pass  into  a  grub 
state,  and  are  carefully  fed  by  the  untiring  work- 
ers, with  a  peculiar  food  they  prepare  for  them. 
This  continues  for  about  a  week,  when  the  grubs 
or  maggots  wrap  themselves  in  a  silken  web,  and 
are  closed  up  in  their  cells  with  a  covering  of  wax. 
In  this  state  they  remain  for  a  fortnight,  changing 
their  skins  several  times,  and  finally  becoming 
perfect  bees,  they  eat  their  way  through  the  lid  of 
their  nests.  In  a  few  hours  they  join  their  fellows, 
and  fly  away  with  them,  capable  at  once  of  doing 
all  that  these  can  or  have  d<one. 

From  the  rapid  increase  of  numbers  in  a  hive, 
they  often  become  over-tenanted.  When  this  is 
the  case,  the  bees  may  be  observed  to  be  agitated 
and  uneasy,  running  in  and  out,  and  no  work 
going  forwards.  There  is,  in  fact,  a  sort  of  civil 
war  raging,  which  ends  by  a  portion  of  the  bees 
being  driven  out.  This  is  called  swarming,  and 
the  expelled  bees  are  always  accompanied  by  one 
or  more  queens,  which  govern  the  rest,  and  wher- 
ever they  settle,  the  whole  number  immediately 
alight  round  them,  in  a  dense  cluster.  The  keep- 
ers of  bees  take  this  opportunity  to  turn  an  empty 
hive  over  them,  and  in  this  they  at  once  settle 
themselves,  and  become  a  new  colony. 


144  THE    QUESTIONS. 

Questions. 

In  what  situation  does  the  carpenter  ant  make  its  home  ? 
By  what  means  does  this  little  animal  work  its  way  T 
Are  their  habitations  of  very  curious  contrivance  and  very 
perfect  1 

What  is  remarkable  as  to  the  trees  inhabited  by  them  1 

How  many  different  kind  of  bees  are  there  in  one  hive  1 

Is  there  ever  more  than  one  queen  ] 

"What  becomes  of  drones  at  certain  periods  1 

What  bees  perform  all  the  labour  in  hives  ? 

What  is  the  first  step  taken  by  hees  in  a  new  hive  1 

Of  what  is  bees'  wax  made  ? 

What  shape  are  the  cells  in  a  honey-comb  1 

What  is  very  singular  as  to  the  shape  ? 

How  many  eggs  does  the  queen  bee  lay  ? 

What  becomes  of  these  eggs  1 

What  kind  of  eggs  are  first  laid  ? 

Describe  the  changes  these  eggs  undergo. 

What  happens  when  hives  become  too  populous  ? 


CHANGES    OF    INSECTS.  145 


LESSON  XXIX. 

CHANGES    OP    INSECTS — CABBAGE-BUTTERFLY 

GNATS. 

ONE  of  the  most  striking  circumstances  about 
insects  is  the  curious  and  extraordinary  changes 
in  shape,  or  transformations,  through  which  they 
pass.  First  they  are  an  egg,  then  a  grub  or  mag- 
got, then  a  caterpillar,  then  a  chrysalis,  and  in  the 
end  a  perfectly  formed  insect.  In  these  various 
states  the  animal  often  dwells  on  vegetables ;  then 
under  ground,  or  in  the  water ;  then  on  land ;  and 
eventually  is  clothed  with  wings,  and  lives  chiefly 
in  the  air.  During  these  changes,  which  ofteji 
occupy  years,  for  the  stag-beetle  remains  a  larva  or 
grub  for  six,  and  the  day-fly  for  three  years,  food 
of  various  kinds  is  eaten.  The  care  of  Almighty 
God,  has,  however,  amply  provided  for  all  these 
variations,  and  we  cannot  sufficiently  admire  his 
wisdom,  who  feeds  and  clothes  the  maggot  hidden 
under  ground,  equally  with  the  splendid  insect 
which  is  to  spring  from  it 

Any  one  who  examines  a  cabbage  leaf  will  find 
little  parcels  of  eggs,  and  if  these  are  watched, 
caterpillars  will  be  found  to  come  from  them. 
These  have  sixteen  short  legs,  twelve  eyes,  which 
are  exceedingly  small,  and  a.  pair  of  jaws,  with 
which,  as  it  crawls,  it  is  constantly  eating.  Each 
creature  keeps  increasing  in  size,  changes  its  skin 
N 


146  GNATS. 

several  times,  and  then  seeking  out  some  con- 
cealed place,  either  in  walls,  or  under  ground.  It 
then  loses  its  caterpillar  form,  and  becomes  a  chry- 
salis, that  is,  an  egg-shaped  case,  enclosing  a  living 
creature  :  and  now  it  has  neither  mouth,  nor  eyes, 
nor  legs,  nor  wings  ;  it  eats  nothing,  and  lies  tor- 
pid. In  this  state  it  continues  for  several  months, 
and  then  escaping  from  its  confinement,  it  comes 
forth  a  butterfly,  furnished  with  beautiful  wings, 
and  with  six  legs :  it  has  now  no  jaws,  but  a  curled 
trunk  or  proboscis  for  sipping  honey,  and  has  two 
long  horns  springing  from  its  head,  and  only  two 
eyes.  Can  any  thing  make  us  feel  more  sensibly 
the  power,  the  wisdom,  and  the  wonderful  ways 
of  our  Creator  ? 

Gnats  undergo  very  singular  changes.  The 
female  gnat  lays  her  eggs  on  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  to  prevent  them  sinking,  covers  them 
with  a  kind  of  glue,  at  the  same  time  fastening 
them  by  a  thread  to  the  bottom,  that  they  may 
not  be  driven  away  from  a  place  which  she  knows 
to  be  suited  for  them.  As  these  eggs  grow,  they 
keep  sinking  deeper  and  deeper,  and  at  last  the 
young  gnats  leave  them  in  the  form  of  worms,  and 
burrow  in  the  mud,  making  themselves  a  coating 
of  cement.  After  this  they  again  change  their 
form,  before  appearing  as  gnats,  and  may  be  seen 
in  stagnant  pools,  hanging  with  their  head  down- 
wards and  their  tails  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
at  which  part  there  is  a  sort  of  funnel  for  breathing. 
The  head  is  now  covered  with  little  hooks,  by 


GNATS.  147 

which  they  seize  upon  minute  animalcula  and  bits 
of  grass,  on  which  they  feed.  After  this  change 
they  turn  into  chrysalides,  and  are  rolled  up  in  a 
spiral  form  ;  and  now  they  do  not  feed  at  all,  but 
lie  on  the  water,  and  on  the  least  disturbance,  un- 
rol  themselves,  and  plunge  to  the  bottom  by  means 
of  small  paddles,  with  which  they  are  provided. 
From  this  state  they  become  proper  gnats,  and 
leave  the  water.  The  head  of  the  gnat  is  orna- 
mented with  a  beautiful  tuft  of  feathers,  and  its 
whole  body  covered  with  fine  hair  and  scales  : 
these  are  very  surprising  changes,  and  cannot  fail 
to  impress  us  with  admiration  of  the  extreme  care 
taken  for  the  preservation  and  production  of  such 
minute  animals. 


"What  name  is  given  to  the  changes  which  insects  un- 
dergo ? 

Mention  the  order  of  these  changes. 

What  may  be  found  on  cabbage  leaves  ? 

What  comes  from  these  eggs  ? 

Describe  the  changes  the  caterpillar  goes  through. 

What  creature  does  it  become,  and  how  does  it  differ  from 
the  caterpillar  ? 

In  what  situation  does  the  gnat  lay  her  eggs  ? 

How  does  she  guard  them  from  being  destroyed  ? 

What  becomes  of  these  eggs  1 

Mention  the  changes  they  pass  through  before  becoming 
gnats. 


148  WINTER-SLEEP    OF    INSECTS. 


LESSON  XXX. 

WINTER-SLEEP    OF    INSECTS USEFULNESS    OF 

INSECTS. 

MOST  insects  pass  the  winter  in  a  torpid  state. 
Spiders  roll  themselves  up  in  a  thick  shroud  of 
web,  and  are  found  lying  apparently  dead,  but  are 
easily  revived  by  placing  them  in  a  warm  situa- 
tion :  heaps  of  torpid  beetles  are  met  with  in  situ- 
ations suited  for  their  preservation.  The  pupae 
of  butterflies  occupy  crevices  in  bark,  or  are  bu- 
ried deep  in  the  ground,  some  of  them  naked,  and 
others  wrapped  in  garments  of  beautiful  silk. 
The  larvae  of  cockchafers,  dragon  flies,  and  others, 
may  be  found,  each  carefully  protected,  and  in 
places  fitted  for  their  wants. 

The  care  which  God  takes  of  all  his  creatures 
is  singularly  shown  in  the  modes  in  which  the 
eggs  of  insects  are  preserved  from  cold  or  wet. 
Some  are  deposited  by  a  parent  who  never  felt  the 
cold,  deep  in  the  earth  ;  others  are  placed  on  twigs 
and  branches,  but  never  on  the  perishable  leaves  ; 
and  others  are  found  covered  with  a  thick  coating 
of  water-proof  varnish,  or  with  down  taken  from 
the  mother's  body. 

Insects  are  of  the  most  extensive  utility.  We 
are  too  apt  to  consider  them  as  troublesome 
plagues  ;  but  this  is  an  error.  Beetles  and  cock- 
roaches may  be  called  the  scavengers  of  the  insect 


USEFULNESS    OP    INSECTS.  149 

world,  as  vultures  are  amongst  birds,  and  they 
clear  away  vast  quantities  of  decaying  vegetable 
and  dead  animal  matter.  An  insect  supplies  us 
with  the  valuable  colouring  matter  called  cochineal, 
which  is  nothing  but  its  body  dried.  Silk  is  fur- 
nished by  another  insect  whilst  it  is  undergoing  its 
transformations. 

The  silk-worm,  like  the  young  of  many  other 
insects,  changes  its  skin  several  times,  and  when  it 
has  arrived  at  its  full  size,  it  spins  itself  a  web  as 
a  covering.  The  outer  part  of  the  web  is  coarse 
and  irregular,  but  the  inner  lining  is  of  fine  -silk, 
and  in  regular  threads.  The  enclosed  worm  and 
its  web  is  called  a  cocoon  :  this  is  placed  in  a  hot 
oven  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  insect, 
which  would,  otherwise,  after  a  while,  eat  its  way 
out,  and  thus  spoil  the  web.  After  this  the  silk  is 
wound  off,  and,  by  various  processes,  made  fit  for 
being  manufactured  into  the  most  beautiful  fabrics. 
If  the  cocoon  were  left  uninjured,  in  the  course  of 
a  short  time  a  butterfly  would  issue  from  it.  Silk 
forms  a  very  important  article  of  commerce,  vast 
quantities  being  used  for  dress  and  other  purposes. 

The  more  we  examine  the  insect  world,  the 
more  sensible  do  we  become  of  the  mighty  power 
and  goodness  of  God.  No  other  portion  of  the 
animal  kingdom  is  filled  with  such  curious  and 
beautiful  instances  of  his  care  and  continual  pro- 
tection ;  in  place,  therefore,  of  looking  upon  the 
numberless  "  creeping  things,"  which  beset  us  on 
all  sides,  as  objects  of  disgust  or  terror,  or  as 


150  USEFULNESS    OF    INSECTS. 

noxious  and  useless  creatures,  let  us  watch  and  ad 
mire  them.  The  humblest  beetle  that  is  seen  tra- 
versing our  garden-walks,  and  the  smallest  fly  that 
sports  in  the  summer-breeze,  each  fulfils  some  im- 
portant and  essential  part  in  the  animal  economy. 
Let  us  never  forget  that, 

.     .     .      Each  crawling  insect  holds  a  rank 
Important  in  the  eye  of  Him  who  framed 
The  scale  of  beings ; 

and,  with  this  impression  on  our  minds,  we  shall 
always  find  amongst  them  abundant  sources  of 
instruction  and  amusement. 


Questions. 

How  do  insects  generally  pass  the  winter? 

In  what  state  are  beetles  found,  and  the  larvae  of  other  in- 
sects 1 

What  precautions  are  taken  to  preserve  the  eggs  of  insects 
from  cold  and  wet  ? 

What  insects  may  be  called  insect-scavengers  1 

What  services  do  they  perform  1 

What  is  cochineal  ? 

When  is  silk  spun  by  the  silk-worm  1 

Which  is  the  finest  part  of  the  silk  ? 

What  is  a  cocoon  ? 

Why  is  the  insect  destroyed,  and  how  is  this  done  1 

What  would  proceed  from  the  cocoon  if  uninjured  ? 


MOLLUSCOUS    ANIMALS. 


151 


LESSON  XXXI. 

MOLLUSCOUS  ANIMALS STRUCTURE CUTTLE- 
FISH  POLYPI. 

THE  sixth  class  in  the  animal  kingdom  has  been 
named  Molluscous,  that  is,  soft  animals,  or  worms. 
Mammalia,  birds,  fishes,  reptiles,  have  a  regular 
system  of  bones,  or  a  skeleton  ;  insects,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  have  no  skeleton,  but  consist 
of  a  number  of  jointed  parts,  and  are  generally 
covered  with  scales,  or  delicate  feathers  :  the 
worms  have  nothing  at  all  resembling  these, 
their  bodies  being,  generally,  soft  and  naked. 
Their  flesh  is  white,  as  their  blood  is  free  from 
colour,  and  they  are  cold  to  the  touch.  Snails, 
leeches,  worms,  and  shell-fish  are  among  the  mol- 
luscous animals. 

Worms,  like  other  cold-blooded  creatures,  are 
very  tenacious  of  life,  and  suffer  the  most  severe 
injuries  without  being  destroyed.  Many  of  them 


152  CUTTLE-FISH. 

can  exist  for  long  periods  without  food,  as  some 
kinds  of  snails  have  been  known  to  live  for  years 
in  a  quiet  state,  without  eating,  and  almost  with- 
out air. 

Some  of  these  animals  are  provided  with  feel- 
ers, or  tentacula,  which  generally  surround 
the  mouth,  and  sometimes  with  a  foot  for  motion. 
The  tentacula  can  be  moved  about  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  antennae 
of  insects.  The  cuttle-fish  has  eight  of  them, 
with  which  it  catches  its  prey,  or  defends  itself : 
in  this  singular  creature  they  are  very  strong, 
and  of  considerable  length,  and  what  is  very 
curious,  they  are  furnished  with  numerous  little 
cups  or  suckers  along  their  inside,  which  enable 
them  to  cling  fast  to  anybody  they  are  applied  to. 

The  cuttle-fish  grows  to  a  great  size,  and  be- 
comes very  powerful.  It  generally  Ifes  hid  in 
holes  in  the  rock,  with  its  arms  stretched  out  in 
all  directions,  ready  to  seize  any  thing  that  may 
pass  its  den.  It  has  also  a  strong  pair  of  jaws,  a 
beak  like  a  parrot,  and  is  covered  with  a  tough 
coarse  skin,  looking  like  leather.  Another  singu- 
lar thing  about  the  animal  is,  that  it  possesses  a 
bladder  filled  with  a  black  fluid,  which  it  can  throw 
out  at  pleasure,  and  thus  hide  itself.  This  fluid, 
when  dried,  forms  a  valuable  colour,  and  is  much 
used  by  artists.  One  kind  of  cuttle-fish  is  very 
common  on  our  coasts,  and  a  particular  bony  sub- 
stance, found  in  its  body,  is  largely  used  for  mak- 
ing tooth-powder. 


POLYPI.  153 

Snails  have  horns  or  feelers  growing  out  from 
the  top  of  their  heads,  and  at  the  end  of  these,  in 
some  species,  the  eyes  are  placed. 

The  structure  of  many  molluscous  animals,  as 
the  polypi,  is  so  extremely  simple,  that  we  cannot 
discover  any  particular  organ,  except  a  cavity 
which  is  supposed  to  be  their  stomach.  They 
seem  to  be  nothing  but  a  mass  of  soft  jelly-like 
substance,  and  were  it  not  that  they  move  about, 
one  might  imagine  they  were  only  pieces  of  some 
inanimate  matter.  Yet  myriads  of  these  creatures 
fill  the  waters,  and  are  placed  there  for  some  use- 
ful and  important  purpose,  as  the  Lord  hath  done 
nothing  in  vain,  "and  the  earth  is  full  of  his  good- 


Questions. 

What  is  the  sixth  class  of  animals  ? 

In  what  respect  do  they  differ  from  mammalia,  birds,  fishes, 
reptiles  and  insects  1 

What  colour  is  the  flesh  of  worms  in  general,  and  what  is 
tne  cause  of  this  1 

Are  worms  warm  or  cold-blooded  creatures  ? 

Are  worms  very  tenacious  of  life  ? 

How  many  feelers  or  arms  has  the  cuttle-fish  ? 

Mention  any  peculiarity  belonging  to  this  animal. 

Where  are  the  eyes  of  some  snails  placed  1 

What  is  remarkable  about  the  structure  of  polypi  ? 


154 


SHELLS. 


LESSON  XXXIL 

HABITATIONS— ^-SHELLS— PEARLS — HABITS—* 

A  &REAT  numbed  Of  the  molluscous  animals 
dwell  in  a  hard  covering  called  shell.  The  colour 
of  shells  is,"  in  some  instances,  remarkably  beauti- 
ful, and  their  shape  and  make  very  curious.  The 
animal,  as  it  increases  in  size, enlarges  its  dwelling 
by  adding  fresh  layers  of  matter  at  thelgdges  ; 
and,  if  the  shell  is  injured,  it  is  repaired  again 
with  the  greatest  nicety. 

Such  shells  as  are  single  are  termed  univalve 
shells,  and  those  which  have  two  plates,  as  the 
oyster,  bivalve  shells  Bivalve  shells  are  fastened 


MOLLUSCOUS   ANIMALS.  155 

to  the  bodies  of  most  of  their  inhabitants  by  mus- 
cles, and  by  these  they  are  able  to  open  or  shut 
them  at  pleasure. 

Pearls,  which  are  so  ornamental  as  articles  of 
dress,  are  procured  from  a  bivalve  shell-fish  :  they 
are  found  growing  in  shells  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  and  are  common  in  some  of  our  own  rivers. 
The  principal  fishing-ground  for  them,  however,  is 
on  the  shores  of  the  island  of  Ceylon,  where  vast 
numbers  of  shells  are  brought  up  by  divers  from 
great  depths  in  the  sea.  Mother-of-pearl  is  the 
inner  lining  of  shells,  freed  from  the  rough  outside 
crust. 

Molluscous  animals  live  on  the  land  and  in  the 
water.  Those  which  dwell  on  land  breathe  by  a 
contrivance  somewhat  like  our  lungs  ;  and  those 
which  inhabit  the  water  have  gills  like  fish. 

The  mode  by  which  these  creatures  keep  them- 
selves in  a  state  of  rest  is  highly  curious.  This  is 
done,  in  many  of  them,  by  means  of  a  sucker, 
which  is  a  soft,  muscular  body,  like  what  is  called 
the  foot,  or  the  belly  of  snail.  It  is  quite  as- 
tonishing how  fast  many  of  them  stick  by  this 
means  ;  but  whenever  we  are  on  a  rocky  sea-shore 
we  may  easily  learn  by  endeavouring  to  gather 
limpets.  Others  hold  themselves  by  a  kind  of 
glue,  or  cement,  which  adheres  to  any  thing  which 
it  touches  ;  and  many  shells  are  actually  fastened 
to  rocks  by  a  stony  matter,  so  that  the  animals 
which  inhabit  them  never  move  from  one -spot. 

The  motions  of  this  part  of  the  animal  kingdom 


156  MOLLUSCOUS    ANIMALS. 

are  slow,  and  confined  to  creeping  and  swimming 
One  or  two  of  the  bivalve  shell-fish  can.  however, 
leap  very  short  distances, — as  the  scallop,  and  the 
muscles  found  in  our  rivers. 

Many  of  this  class  of  animals  afford  excellent 
food,  and  are  largely  used  for  that  purpose  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  The  pinna,  a  bivalve  shell- 
fish, is  famous  for  furnishing  a  kind  of  thread^ 
which  may  be  made  into  dresses  ;  fine  pearls  are 
also  sometimes  found  in  it. 

The  engraving  at  the  head  of  this  lesson  re- 
presents the  paper  nautilus.  The  Mediterranean 
sea,  and  warmer  parts  of  the  Atlantic,  abound  in 
these  beautiful  little  creatures.  In  calm  summer 
days  they  may  be  seen  in  considerable  numbers, 
steering  themselves  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 


Questions. 

What  kind  of  covering  have  many  molluscous  animals  1 

In  what  way  do  they  enlarge  their  shells  "? 

What  is  the  meaning  of  bivalve  and  univalve  shells  ? 

From  what  are  pearls  procured  ? 

Can  you  mention  what  rivers  furnish  them  in  our  own 
country  ? 

Where  are  they  found  most  abundantly  1 

How  does  the  snail  support  itself  when  at  rest  1 

By  what  other  means  do  molluscous  animals  fasten  them- 
selves ? 

Are  they  capable  of  much  and  quick  motion  ? 

What  shell-fish  can  leap  ? 

Mention  some  which  are  useful  as  food  1 

For  what  is  the  pinna  celebrated  ? 


CORAL.  157 


LESSON  XXXIII. 

ZOOPHYTES — CORAL — CORAL  REEFS — NEW  ISLANDS 
SPONGES MADREPORES. 

A  VERY  singular  portion  of  the  animal  kingdom 
is  included  in  our  present  class.  This  consists  of 
sponges,  corals,  and  other  objects,  which  have 
been  called  zoophytes,  or  animal-plants.  This 
name  has  been  given  to  them  because  many  resemble 
vegetable  productions  very  closely  ;  and  there  are 
others  amongst  them  that  have  a  likeness  near  to 
masses  of  stone  or  rock. 

Some  of  these  zoophytes  are  fixed  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the -sea  by  a  kind  of  root,  and  grow  very 
much  in  the  same  way  as  plants.  They  multiply, 
also,  by  nearly  the  same  means, — that  is,  by  buds 
and  slips,  and  as  they  never  move  from  one  spot, 
and  give  very  little  sign  of  feeling,  they  are  often 
taken  for  sea-weed.  They  are,  however,  perfect 
animals  of  their  kind,  and  are  provided  with  ten- 
tacula  or  feelers,  which  they  employ  to  catch  their 
food. 

Others  of  these  minute  and  extraordinary  crea- 
tures, which  have  the  common  name  of  polyjn9 
dwell  together  by  millions,  and  build  for  them- 
selves strong  habitations,  .which  we  call  coral. 
Each  of  these  little  masons  has,  however,  its  own 
house,  in  which  it  dwells  separate  from  its  neigh- 
O 


158  SPONGES. 

hours.  What  is  exceedingly  wonderful  is,  that 
this  stony  matter,  or  coral,  is  formed  from  the 
body  of  the  animal  itself.  They  are  also  furnished 
with  a  number  of  delicate  feelers,  which  are  almost 
constantly  stretched  out  in  the  water,  and  in  active 
motion. 

The  "  great  deep'5  has  no  wonder  more  striking 
than  the  formation  of  coral  reefs.  In  warm 
climates  they  are  seen  rising,  like  strong  walls, 
from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  forming  immense 
circles.  The  little  architects  carry  on  their  labours 
till  the  buildings  are  above  the  surface,  when  they 
are  exposed  to  the  influence  of  heat  and  air.  This 
renders  their  workmanship  crumbly,  and  thus  it 
becomes  a  bed  for  vegetation,  the  seeds  of  which 
are  borne  to  it  upon  the  winds,  or  by  the  tide,  or 
brought  by  some  wandering  bird  which  has  sought 
it  as  a  resting  place.  Thus  God,  working  by  such 
apparently  insignificant  agents,  is  continually  pro- 
ducing new  islands,  which  in  the  course  of  time, 
become  covered  with  soil,  and  fit  for  the  habitation 
of  man. 

Sponges,  which  grow  plentifully  on  the  rocky 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  are  also  polypes. 
These,  in  place  of  covering  themselves  with  stone, 
have  a  soft,  fleshy  dwelling,  and  this  forms  what 
we  call  sponge.-  Others  amongst  them  bore  holes 
in  rocks,  and  others  make  a  hard  mass  of  stone, 
having  but  little  regularity  in  its  shape,  and  with- 
out being  branched  like  .coraL  These  are  term- 


MADREPORES,    ETC. 


159 


ed  madrepores,  millepores,  and  retipores,  names 
given  them  as  being  descriptive  of  their  dwellings. 


Questions. 

Why  have  certain  animated  beings  been  called  zoophytes, 
or  animal  plants  ? 

To  which  kingdom  of  nature  do  they  in  reality  belong? 

In  what  manner  do  some  of  these  grow? 

With  what  have  they  been  confounded  1 

What  are  they  furnished  with  for  seizing  their  food1? 

What  is  coral  1 

In  what  climates  are  coral  reefs  found  ? 

In  what  form  do  they  frequently  appear  above  the  surface 
of  the  ocean  1 

What  takes  place  when  they  are  exposed  to  air  and 
heat? 

How  are  the  seeds  of  vegetation  brought  to  them  ? 

What  follows  in  the  course  of  time  ? 

Recapitulate  the  mode  in  which  new  islands  are  produced. 

What  is  sponge  1 


160  STRUCTURE    OP    VEGETABLES. 


LESSON  XXXIV. 

THE  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM — STRUCTURE  OP 
VEGETABLES LEAVES. 

THE  natural  objects  with  which  the  reader  has 
been  made  acquainted  compose  the  animal  king- 
dom, and  every  thing  contained  in  it  has  animal 
life,  that  is,  it  can  move  and  feel.  We  now  come 
to  the  second  grand  division  into  which  the  pro- 
ductions of  nature  have  been  arranged,  namely  the 
vegetable  kingdom. 

The  objects  which  come  under  this  division 
live,  but  the  life  they  enjoy  differs  from  animal 
life.  Vegetables  can  neither  move  nor  feel,  they 
grow  and  perish  in  the  same  situations,  and  though 
they  appear  sensible  to  light  and  heat,  they  show 
no  trace  of  feeling  beyond  this. 

The  term  vegetable  is  applied  to  trees,  shrubs, 
grasses,  fungi,  mosses,  ferns,  and  lichens.  It  is 
these  which  clothe  the  earth  with  verdure,  and 
cover  it  with  woods  and  forests,  and  which  supply 
a  great  part  of  the  food  of  man  and  of  the  rest  of 
the  animal  kingdom. 

The  structure  of  vegetables  is  highly  curious, 
and  consists  of  a  number  of  narrow  tubes,  through 
which  a  fluid  is  conveyed  called  the  sap,  and  of 
woody  fibres.  The  outer  bark  of  plants  is  in 
general  hard  and  rough,  and  serves  as  a  protection 
to  the  parts  beneath.  These  are  an  inner  fibrous 


STRUCTURE    OF    VEGETABLES.  161 

bark,  and  a  layer  of  soft  wood,  called  alburnum, 
Then  comes  the  solid  wood,  which  serves  as  a 
support  for  the  whole,  and  in  the  centre  of  this 
there  is,  in  some  species  of  plants,  a  soft  matter 
called  the  pith.  All  these  parts  may  be  very 
clearly  seen  in  the  young  branch  of  an  elder 
tree. 

The  leaves  of  vegetables  are  of  many  shapes, 
and  serve  in  a  great  measure  for  marking  one  spe- 
cies from  another.  The  upper  surface  of  leaves 
is  in  general  very  smooth  and  glossy,  and  of  a 
much  deeper  colour  than  the  under  side  ;  this 
may  be  observed  in  the  laurel,  the  willow,  and 
many  other  trees. 

Leaves  differ,  too,  very  much  in  size.  In  some 
plants  they  are  large,  broad,  and  numerous,  almost 
hiding  the  branches,  as  in  the  sycamore  and 
horse-chestnut ;  in  others,  they  are  small,  long,  and 
narrow,  as  in  the  ash  and  willow.  Some  leaves 
are  simple,  that  is,  having  a  single  body;  in 
others,  each  leaf-stalk  holds  several  small  leaves, 
called  leaflets,  as  in  the  rose  tree;  such  leaves  are 
named  by  botanists  compound  leaves. 

Leaves  form  the  foliage  of  plants ;  and  are 
found  to  be  set  upon  the  branches  in  particular 
ways,  according^  to  the  species.  Thus,  if  we 
examine  the  leaves  of  the  elm  or  ash,  we  shall 
find  them  arranged  in  one  certain  form,  which  is 
just  alike  in  every  branch  we  can  find.  In  the 
weeping  willow,  the  long  and  slender  leaves  are 
pendent,  or  hanging,  whilst  the  common  willow, 


162  STRUCTURE    OP    VEGETABLES. 

though  its  leaves  are  very  similar  in  shape,  has 
them  standing  upright. 

Leaves  are  made  up  of  a  number  of  very  fine 
nerves,  as  they  are  called,  and  small  tubes  or 
vessels,  and  of  a  delicate  thready  net-work.  This 
structure  is  very  prettily  seen,  by  picking  up  in 
autumn  the  leaf  of  a  poplar.  After  this  has  lain 
for  a  time,  it  loses  the  soft  matter,  and  becomes  a 
sort  of  skeleton,  made  up  of  membrane  like  very 
fine  net.  Leaves  serve  the  same  purpose  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  that  lungs  and  other  con- 
trivances for  breathing  do  amongst  animals.  The 
air,  when  confined  over  a  plant,  is  found  to  undergo 
certain  changes,  and  if  not  renewed,  the  plant  dies. 
Thus,  a  free  circulation  of  air  is  as  needful  to  the 
life  and  health  of  vegetables  as  of  animals. 


Questions, 

Do  vegetables  live  ? 

To  what  do  they  appear  sensible  ? 

What  objects  are  included  in  the  vegetable  kingdom? 

What  is  the  structure  of  vegetables  ? 

Describe  the  parts  of  vegetables  as  they  may  be  seen  in  a 
branch  of  elder. 

Are  leaves  alike  in  size  and  shape  ? 

Are  more  leaves  than  one  contained  on  one  leaf-stalk  in 
some  plants  ? 

Of  what  are  leaves  composed  1 

What  purposes  do  leaves  serve  1 

Is  a  free  circulation  of  air  essential  to  vegetable  life  ? 


ROOTS    AND   SEEDS.  163 

LESSON  XXXV. 

ROOTS SEEDS BUDS. 

THAT  part  of  a  vegetable  which  is  concealed 
under  ground  is  termed  the  root  This  consists  of 
a  number  of  what  we  may  call  branches,  that  shoot 
in  all  directions  deep  into  the  soil,  and  thus  serve 
as  stays  or  supports  to  keep  the  tree  in  an  upright 
position.  These  branches  divide  and  sub-divide 
till  the  extreme  twigs,  or  radicles,  are  as  fine  as 
threads,  and  it  is  through  these  that  vegetables  are 
nourished.  They  take  up  or  absorb  moisture, 
and  other  matters  for  this  purpose,  which  are  then 
carried  by  the  tubes  in  the  trunk  to  the  leaves, 
where  they  undergo  a  process  which  fits  them  for 
nourishing  the  plant. 

Roots  sometimes  extend  many  yards  along  the 
ground,  more  especially  if  they  are  placed  in 
rocky  situations,  where  the  soil  is  scanty,  and  only 
to  be  found  in  the  fissures  and  crevices.  In  such 
cases,  they  shoot  over  broad  spaces  of  bare  rock, 
and  dive  into  every  hole  where  soil  can  be  found. 
When  an  ash  or  oak  tree  has  been  planted  in  these 
places,  their  roots  may  be  seen  straggling  in  all 
ways,  looking  like  knotted  branches,  and  clinging 
firmly  to  surfaces  where  we  might  suppose  it 
impossible  for  them  to  find  support. 

The  seeds  of  vegetables  are  exceedingly  curious 
in  their  make,  and  show  striking  proofs  of  the 


164  SEEDS. 

power  and  wisdom  with  which  they  have  been 
designed.  Many  are  covered  in  the  most  careful 
manner,  to  preserve  them  from  injury,  so  that  they 
may  be  thrown  about  without  doing  them  any 
harm.  The  pulpy  part  of  apples,  pears,  and 
plums,  which  forms  such  grateful  fruit,  is  nothing 
but  seed  coverings,  and  meant  to  nourish  the  seeds 
when  they  fall  to  the  ground.  Other  seeds,  as 
beans  or  peas,  are  shut  up  in  ,pods,  or  shells  ; 
others,  as  nuts,  plums,  and  apricots,  are  enclosed 
in  a  wooden  shell ;  others  are  furnished  with  a 
'  bitter  rind  to  preserve  them  from  the  ravages  of 
insects ;  and  others,  as  the  oat  and  grass  seeds,  have 
a  thick  and  tough  membrane  as  a  coating. 

When  seeds  are  sown,  after  a  time,  a  number  of 
delicate  roots  spring  from  one  end,  and  a  green 
sprout,  or  bud,  from  the  other.  What  is  very 
singular  about  the  vegetating  or  growing  of  seeds 
is,  that  in  whatever  direction  they  may  happen 
to  fall,  the  root  always  strikes  downwards,  and  the 
bud  which  contains  the  rudiments  of  the  future 
plant  appears  above  the  surface.  This  is  a  beauti- 
ful provision  of  Providence,  for  if  every  seed 
required  to  be  placed  in  its  proper  position,  there 
would  be  no  possibility  of  sowing  grain.  As  it  is, 
however,  if  a  seed  fall  with  the  root-end  upper- 
most, when  the  fibres  have  grown  a  little  distance, 
they  turn  downwards,  and  the  sprout  which  was 
growing  into  the  soil  turns  upwards,  and  makes 
its  way  into  the  air.  Those  seeds  which  are  shut 
up  in  hard  cases,  as  nuts,  when  the  sprout  begins 


BUDS.  165 

to  grow,  gradually  enlarge,  and  the  shell  divides, 
to  permit  the  young  plant  to  make  its  escape. 

Buds,  which  are  little  conical  green  bodies  found 
on  trees  during  winter  and  spring,  are  full  of  mat- 
ter for  wonder  and  admiration.  There  is  not, 
indeed,  any  object  in  nature  that  evinces  more 
design  than  a  bud.  On  examining  that  oT  the  horse- 
chestnut  early  in  spring,  it  is  found  covered  on  the 
outside  by  a  gum-resinous  varnish,  which  protects 
the  tender  parts  inside  from  wet  and  cold. 
Beneath  this  is  a  strong  and  thick  casing  of  leaves, 
and  enclosed  within  these  is  a  complete  plant  in 
miniature,  consisting  of  a  number  of  small  downy 
leaves,  most  curiously  folded,  and  lying  in  the  least 
possible  compass. 


Questions* 

What  part  of  vegetables  is  called  the  root  1 
What  purposes  do  roots  serve7? 
How  is  a  plant  nourished  1 
Mention  some  of  the  coverings  of  seeds  1 
What  takes  place  after  seeds  have  been  sown  some  time  1 
What  is  very  wonderful  about  the  root  and  sprout  of  seeds  ? 
Does  the  same  thing  take  place  where  seeds  are  thrown 
wrong  side  up  1 

What  are  buds,  and  what  do  they  contain  1 

How  is  the  bud  of  the  horse-chestnut  found  in  spring  1 


166  FLOWERS* 


LESSON  XXXVI. 

FLOWERS STRUCTURE    OF    FLOWERS SIZE    OF 

FLOWERS ODOUR FLORALS    CLOCK. 

FLOWERS  are  amongst  the  most  charming  and 
beautiful  of  all  the  productions  of  nature.  Their 
colours,  their  forms,  and  their  odours  are  alike 
delightful.  The  hand  of  God  has  scattered  them 
over  the  whole  world,  so  that  let  us  go  where  we 
will  we  are  sure  to  meet  with  them,  and  to  be 
pleased  with  their  varied  beauties. 

Almost  all  plants  produce  flowers ;  and  these 
are  not  only  ornamental,  but  they  are  also  neces- 
sary for  the  production  of  seed,  the  seed-vessels 
being  in  every  instance  part  of  the  flower.  In 
admiring  flowers,  therefore,  we  should  look  at 
them  closely,  and  we  shall  learn  a  great  deal  that 
is  curious,  and  a  great  deal  that  will  make  us  sen- 


STRUCTURE    AND    SIZE    OF    FLOWERS.         167 

sible  how  much  care  has  been  bestowed  upon 
them. 

The  flower  of  that  beautiful  annual,  the  sweet- 
pea,  so  common  in  our  gardens,  is  very  remark- 
able, and  resembles  in  some  degree  a  butterfly. 
This  delightful  flower  has  four  petals,  as  the 
coloured  flower-leaves  are  called.  The  lowest 
of  these,  which  is  named  the  keel,  encloses  the 
seed-vessels,  and  over  these  are  stretched  two 
others,  in  the  shape  of  a  sloping  roof,  called  the 
wings,  whilst  towering  over  all  is  a  broad  petal, 
termed  the  standard,  or  banner,  which  serves  as  a 
sort  of  vane,  and  as  the  whole  flower  is  placed 
upon  a  slender  pedicle,  or  flower-stalk,  it  is  thus 
enabled  to  turn  away  from  the  wind  whichever 
way  it  may  blow.  We  should  all  examine  this 
flower,  as  its  parts  are  very  distinct,  and  we  are  sure 
to  learn  something  from  it. 

Flowers  are  found  of  all  shapes  and  sizes.  Some 
are  so  small  as  hardly  to  be  visible  to  the  naked 
eye ;  others  grow  to  an  immense  size,  as  the 
krubul,  which  is  found  in  some  hot  countries. 
This  is  the  largest  flower  at  present  known,  and 
measures  a  full  yard  across:  each  of  its  petals  are 
a  foot  long,  and  the  nectarium,  or  honey-vessel,  is 
large  enough  to  hold  three  quarts.  A  specimen 
of  a  nectarium  may  be  seen  in  the  columbine.  In 
this  flower  it  has  the  form  of  a  curved  horn  or 
spur. 

The  odour  or  smell  of  flowers  is  in  general  ex- 
ceedingly grateful.  That  of  the  hawthorn,  which 


168  FLORA'S  CLOCK. 

covers  the  hedgerows  with  its  white  blossoms,  is 
wafted  to  us  on  the  earliest  gales  of  spring.  The 
mignonette,  or  little  darling,  the  polyanthus,  stocks, 
wall-flowers,  roses,  and  many  others,  shed  their 
fragrance  through  our  gardens,  whilst  others  are 
found  in  all  our  spring  and  summer  walks,  through 
every  lane  and  "alley  green,"  affording  a  constant 
source  of  delight. 

A  very  curious  thing  about  flowers  is,  that  many 
of  them  close  their  petals  punctually  at  certain 
hours  of  the  day,  and  others  at  the  approach  of  rain. 
This  periodical  shutting  of  flowers  has  been  called 
Flora's  clock.  The  yellow  and  purple  star  of  Je- 
rusalem closes  at  noon ;  the  purple  goat's  beard 
shuts  at  twelve  o'clock,  and  has  from  this  circum- 
stance been  named  go-to-bed  at  noon,  whilst  the 
evening  primrose  opens  its  petals  at  sunset  and 
closes  them  at  daybreak.  During  summer  the 
dandelion  opens  about  half  past  five  in  the  morn- 
ing and  shuts  at  ten,  when  the  sun  is  becoming 
powerful;  the  flower  of  the  garden  lettuce  spreads 
its  petals  at  seven,  and  collects  them  together  at 
ten :  the  cat's-ear  closes  at  three  in  the  afternoon, 
the  mouse-ear  at  half  past  two,  and  the  prince's 
leaf  at  four,  and  hence  is  called  the  four  o'clock 
flower. 

The  pimpernel,  or,  as  it  is  familiarly  called,  the 
poor  man's  weather-glass,  is  an  excellent  guide  as 
to  the  weather.  If  its  petals  are  seen  fairly  open- 
ed, it  is  almost  sure  to  be  fine,  and  if  closed,  rain  is 
certainly  near.  Linnaeus,  the  celebrated  botanist 


JLINNJEUS.  169 


is  said  to  have  had  so  perfect  a  knowledge  of  the 
periods  of  flowers  opening  and  closing,vand  of  the 
signs  given  by  them,  that  he  wanted  neither  watch, 
calendar,  nor  weather-glass. 


Questions. 

What  name  is  given  to  flower-leaves  ? 

Try  to  describe  the  flower  of  the  sweet-pea,  first,  what  it  is 
like,  and  so  on. 

How  is  this  protected  from  injury  by  the  wind  ? 

What  is  the  largest  flower  known,  and  to  what  size  does  it 
grow  ? 

In  which  of  our  garden-flowers  may  the  nectarium  be  seen? 

What  flowers  are  remarkable  for  their  delightful  odour  ? 

What  very  interesting  circumstance  is  connected  with  many 
flowers  ? 

What  name  has  been  given  to  this  shutting  of  flowers'? 

Can  you  mention  some  instances  of  this  ? 

What  is  the  pimpernel  called,  and  what  maybe  learnt  from 
observing  its  flowers  ] 

What  has  been  said  of  Linnaeus  and  his  knowledge  of 
flowers  T 


PERIODS    OF    FLOWERING. 


LESSON  XXXVII. 

PERIODS  OF  FLOWERING DIFFUSION  OF  SEEDS. 

OUR  beneficent  Creator  has  in  his  bounty  or- 
dained that  every  season  should  have  its  peculiar 
vegetation.  He  has  thus  given  to  us  a  constant 
succession  of  new  and  beautiful  objects,  and 
clothed  the  earth  with  plants  fitted  for  the  changes 
in  our  climate. 

There  is  hardly  any  time  in  the  year  in  which 
some  flowers  may  not  be  found, — few  in  the  depth 
of  winter,  plentiful  in  spring,  abounding  in  sum- 
mer, and  gradually  decreasing  in  number  during 
the  autumn. 

Among  the  earliest  of  our  spring  flowers  is  the 
epigaea,  which  generally  appears  at  the  end  of 
March.  This  is  followed  by  the  anemonies,  and 
the  peach. 

In  April  and  May  the  earth  is  literally  covered 
with  floral  beauties.  The  dandelion  gives  its  gold- 


PERIODS    OP    FLOWERING.  171 

en  tint  to  our  meadows,  whilst  the  buttercup,  the 
cowslip,  and  violet  are  found  in  all  directions. 
The  fields,  woods,  and  gardens  are  crowded  with 
blossoms  of  the  dogwood,  the  May  apple,  the 
arum,  the  thorn,  the  plum,  the  cherry,  the  pear, 
the  apple,  and  the  honeysuckle;  and  the  fields  with 
poppies,  clover,  lilies,  and  the  different  grasses. 

June  brings  us  lilies,  the  iris,  the  wild  lily  of  the 
valley,  sweet  grass,  blackberry,  the  locust,  the  fox- 
glove, the  clover,  the  mallow,  the  tulip  tree,  the 
lime  tree,  sweet-williams,  bind-weeds,  the  laurel, 
and  the  wild  and  garden  roses,  as  the  dogrose,  the 
scotch,  the  cabbage,  the  moss,  the  musk,  and  the 
downy-leaved  roses.  July  ushers  in  the  chestnut, 
rosebay,  meadow-sweet,  marigolds,  thistles,  flax, 
the  amaranth,  holyhocks,  and  nasturtiums.  Au- 
gust, the  sunflower,  docks,  burdocks,  the  chrysan- 
themums, China  asters,  and  dahlias.  September 
is  accompanied  by  the  whole  family  of  fungi,  such 
as  mushrooms,  toadstools,  and  puff-balls. 

At  the  beginning  of  autumn  the  petals  of  most 
flowers  have  fallen  away,  and  fruit  and  seeds  ripen. 
The  means  provided  by  God,  in  order  to  secure 
the  diffusion  or  spreading  of  the  seed,  are  amongst 
the  most  singular  of  his  works,  and  show  the  most 
beautiful  design,  with  the  means  for  fulfilling  it. 
The  different  coverings,  or  seed-vessels,  may  be 
called  sowing  machines,  and  they  perform  their 
work  in  an  admirable  manner.  Some  of  them 
burst  open  suddenly,  and  scatter  the  seeds  all 
around ;  others  are  so  light  that  they  are  carried 


172  DIFFUSION    OF    SEEDS. 

by  the  wind,  and  many  are  provided  with  little 
feathery  balloons,  by  means  of  which  they  are 
wafted  away.  During  the  time  the  thistles  are 
shedding  their  seeds,  on  some  occasions  the  air 
is  almost  filled  with  them,  as  they  are  provided 
with  a  tuft  which  carries  them  on  the  breeze. 
The  seeds  of  the  ash  and  sycamore  have  wings, 
and  are  blown  away  in  hundreds  to  very  great 
distances. 

The  seeds  of  mosses  and  fungi  are  so  light  and 
small  that  they  are  carried  up  into  the  air  along 
with  the  evaporation  of  moisture,  and  floated  over 
rivers  and  seas,  to  be  left  on  rocks  and  barren 
places  as  the  first  beginnings  of  vegetation.  Many 
seeds,  as  those  of  the  burdock,  the  bedstraw,  the 
agrimony,  and  others,  are  covered  with  little 
hooks,  and  are  by  this  means  carried  away  by  the 
skins  of  animals.  If  wre  look  at  our  dress,  after 
an  autumnal  walk  through  a  copsewood  or  thicket, 
we  shall  find  it  covered  with  seeds,  sticking  by 
those  little  hooks.  Birds  also  assist  largely  in 
spreading  seeds. 


Questions. 

At  what  periods  ot  the  year  are  flowers  most  plentiful  ] 

At  what  period  do  plants  mostly  shed  their  seed  1 

What  trees  and  plants  flower  in  March  1     In  April  1     In 

May1?     In  June]     In  July1?     In  August]     In  September"? 
Mention  some  of  the  ways  in  which  seeds  are  scattered 

abroad. 

What  seeds  are  furnished  with  wings  1 

By  what  means  are  seeds  carried  away  on  the  skins  of 

animals  ? 


TREES.  173 


LESSON  XXXVIII. 

TREES USEFULNESS    OF    TREES. 

THOSE  vegetable  productions  which  grow  to  a 
certain  size,  and  have  a  distinct  trunk  or  stem,  are 
called  trees.  Shrubs  differ  from  trees  merely  in 
being  smaller  and  having  a  bushy  character,  and 
from  several  stems  often  springing  together  from 
the  same  root. 

Trees  are  applied  to  a  great  variety  of  useful 
purposes.  The  wood  obtained  from  them  is  used 
for  the  building  of  houses  and  ships,  particularly 
oak,  teak,  and  pine.  The  ash,  the  beech,  the 
elm,  jthe  lime,  the  white  pine,  and  the  birch, 
amongst  our  native  trees,  are  of  the  greatest  value 
to  the  cabinet-maker  and  the  carpenter,  all  sorts 
of  useful  wooden  articles  are  being  made  from  them. 
The  fruit  of  the  oak  and  the  beach,  called  acorns 
and  beech-mast,  is  used  for  feeding  herds  of  hogs. 


174  "USEFULNESS    OP    TREES. 

Pines  and  firs  grow  to  a  great  length,  and  are  used 
for  the  masts  of  ships  and  for  building.  Turpen- 
tine, rosin,  pitch,  and  tar  are  procured  from  this 
species  of  tree. 

The  largest  and  most  magnificent  trees  are, 
however,  found  in  hot  countries.  Amongst  these, 
various  kinds  of  palms  afford  the  noblest  speci- 
mens of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  They  attain  a 
vast  height,  the  palma  real  of  Cuba  often  being 
seen  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  high.  They  have 
tall,  slender  stems,  without  branches,  with  a  crown 
of  immense  leaves  springing  from  the  very  top, 
and  hanging  down  in  the  lightest  and  most  grace- 
ful manner.  These  leaves  are  twelve  or  fifteen 
feet  long,  and  have  at  their  root  bunches  of  the 
most  brilliant  blossoms. 

Most  of  the  palms  bear  a  fruit,  which  supplies 
the  people  where  they  grow  with  the  greatest  part 
of  their  food.  The  date  palm  and  the  cocoa  nut 
palm  are  amongst  the  most  useful,  and  their  fruit 
is  also  made  an  article  of  commerce.  The  baobab, 
or  monkey-bread  tree,  is  the  largest  vegetable 
known.  This  tree  has  a  short  stem,  but  is  of 
amazing  thickness,  and  from  this  it  sends  out 
branches  till  it  looks  like  a  forest  in  itself:  its 
fruit  is  highly  valuable,  being  used  both  as  food 
and  medicine. 

In  South  America  a  tree  has  been  lately  disco- 
vered which  yields  a  juice  just  like  milk  in  appear- 
ance, and  which  forms  a  nourishing  drink :  hence 
it  has  been  called,  Palo  di  vaca,  the  cow-tree,  or 


USEFULNESS    OF    TREES.  175 

the  mother-tree.  India  rubber  is  the  dried  juice 
of  another  South  American  tree.  This  is  obtained 
by  making  cuts  into  the  bark,  from  which  the  sap 
flows  plentifully  of  a  milky  whiteness.  It  is  then 
exposed  to  the  sun,  which  dries  it,  and  this  is  all 
the  preparation  it  undergoes.  Another  tree  found 
in  hot  countries  is  frequently  useful  to  the  natives, 
by  furnishing  them  with  water.  The  wild  pine 
of  Campeachy  has  deep  leaves,  which  are  so  made 
as  to  hold  water:  these  are  filled  during  the  heavy 
tropical  showers,  and  serve  both  to  refresh  the 
plant  and  as  drink  to  the  traveller. 

The  wood  of  many  trees  is  of  a  very  beautiful 
colour  and  takes  a  high  polish,  and  is  used  for 
furniture  and  ornamental  purposes.  Mahogany, 
rose-wood,  zebra-wood,  ebony,  and  many  others, 
are  important  articles  of  commerce  on  this  account, 
the  greatest  part  of  our  chairs  and  tables  being 
made  from  them. 

The  cotton  tree,  however,  affords  the  most  valu- 
able vegetable  production  for  the  use  of  man.  It 
is  a  shrubby  tree  growing  in  warm  countries,  and 
produces  a  nut,  in  which  the  seeds  are  covered 
by  the  soft  downy  substance  called  cotton.  Vast 
quantities  of  this  are  gathered  every  year,  and  the 
making  of  it  into  cloth  employs  the  labour  of  many 
thousands  of  our  countrymen. 

The  varieties  of  the  forest  trees  of  the  United 
States  are  very  numerous.  Of  the  oak  alone,  as 
many  as  ten  varieties  may  be  often  seen  from  the 
same  spot.  The  firs  and  pines  also  abound  here 


176  USEFULNESS    OF    TREES. 

The  white  pine  is  among  the  most  useful  of  our 
trees;  indeed,  as  it  is  chiefly  used  for  finishing  the 
interior  of  our  houses,  it  could  hardly  be  dispensed 
with. 


Questions. 

In  what  do  shrubs  differ  from  trees  ? 

Mention  some  trees  which  are  useful  for  building. 

What  trees  are  chiefly  used  by  the  cabinet-maker  and  car- 
penter T 

In  what  countries  do  the  finest  trees  grow  1 

Can  you  tell  what  kind  of  tree  affords  the  finest  specimen 
of  vegetation  1 

Can  you  describe  a  palm  tree  ? 

What  kinds  of  tree  furnish  dates  and  cocoa  ? 

What  is  the  name  of  the  largest  tree  ? 

Mention  two  useful  South  American  trees. 

What  kind  of  wood  is  used  principally  for  furniture  1 

What  plant  yields  the  most  useful  vegetable  production  ? 

What  are  some  of  the  most  useful  of  our  trees  1 


FRUIT. 


177 


LESSON  XXXIX. 

FRUIT GRASSES GARDEN    AND    FIELD 

VEGETABLES. 

GOD  in  his  bounty,  when  providing  seed-vessels 
for  many  vegetables,  covered  them  with  rich  pulpy 
and  nourishing  matter.  This  we  call  fruit,  and  it 
is  of  the  utmost  value  to  us  as  food,  and  in  many 
instances  as  medicine. 

We  cannot  turn,  indeed,  to  any  portion  of  the 
three  kingdoms  of  nature,  without  finding  some- 
thing to  remind  us  of  the  goodness  and  bounty  of 
our  universal  Father.  The  bud  or  the  leaf  of  a 
plant  is  as  full  of  instruction  as  the  form  and  struc- 
ture of  the  elephant,  or  of  the  mighty  whale. 

The  apple,  the  pear,  the  plum,  the  cherry,  the 
peach,  the  apricot,  the  gooseberry,  the  currant,  the 
raspberry,  the  strawberry,  and  others,  grow  abun- 
dantly in  our  country.  In  warmer  climates,  the 


178  GRASSES. 

orange,  the  lemon,  the  olive,  the  grape,  the  fig,  the 
date,  the  bread-fruit,  the  pine-apple,  the  melon,  and 
a  great  variety  of  others,  grow  in  endless  profu- 
sion, and  afford  to  the  inhabitants  a  wholesome  and 
grateful  provision,  fitted  for  their  peculiar  wants. 

The  grasses,  or  cereal ia,  as  they  are  termed  by 
botanists,  form  one  of  the  most  important  and  most 
useful  families  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is 
these  which  cover  the  earth  with  verdure,  and  it  is 
these  which  form  the  principal  part  of  our  food. 
Wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  millet,  maize,  or  Indian 
corn,  and  rice  are  included  in  the  grasses,  and 
furnish  man  with  bread,  and  its  substitutes,  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  in  which  they  grow. 

What  is  generally  called  grass  consists  of  a 
number  of  plants,  all  remarkable  for  their  slender 
stems,  their  thin  and  delicate  leaves,  and  for  their 
mode  of  flowering.  One  of  their  most  valuable 
and  singular  properties  is,  that  the  more  they  are 
eaten  away  and  apparently  injured,  the  more  they 
flourish,  as  this  strengthens  their  roots,  and  makes 
them  grow  with  double  vigour.  This  eminently 
fits  them  for  being  browsed  upon  by  cattle,  which 
find  their  entire  support  from  them. 

Some  of  these,  which  are  small  in  our  country, 
grow  to  a  great  size  in  hot  countries,  and  are  found 
taller  than  a.  man,  covering  vast  plains.  The  in- 
habitants of  warm  climates  are  supported  in  a  great 
measure  by  rice  and  maize,  whilst  in  colder  coun- 
tries man  lives  chiefly  on  wheat  and  oats.  The 
sugar-cane,  from  the  juice  of  which  sugar  is  pro- 


VEGETABLES.  179 

cured,  is  another  of  the  grasses.  The  bamboo,  the 
reeds,  and  the  rush,  which  are  applied  to  many 
useful  purposes,  are  also  members  of  the  same 
family. 

Great  numbers  of  vegetables,  useful  as  food,  are 
cultivated  in  our  gardens  and  fields.  Amongst 
these  are  cabbages,  brocoli,  beans,  peas,  asparagus, 
cauliflowers,  turnips,  carrots,  potatoes,  and  many 
others.  The  potato,  which  now  forms  so  necessa- 
ry a  part  of  our  diet,  has  only  been  known  amongst 
us  about  two  hundred  years.  Onions,  leeks,  garlic, 
parsley,  beets,  and  radishes,  are  also  grown  in 
gardens,  and  are  called  with  the  rest  culinary ^QT 
garden  vegetables. 

Flax  is  cultivated  for  the  purposes  of  making 
linen ;  hemp  for  ropes  and  matting ;  rape  for  oil ; 
and  hops,  used  in  brewing.  Clover,  lucern-grass, 
vetches,  Swedish  turnips,  and  others,  are  cultivat- 
ed for  feeding  cattle ;  and  saffron  and  madder  for 
the  purposes  of  dyeing  cloth ;  the  one  yields  a 
yellow,  and  the  other  a  red  colour, 


Questions, 

-What  is  fruit,  and  for  what  purposes  is  it  useful  1 
What  kinds  are  common  in  our  country  ? 
Name  some  of  the  fruits  that  abound  in  hot  countries. 
What  plants  cover  the  earth  with  verdure  ? 
From  what  do  we  derive  the  principal  part  of  our  food  1 
What  is  it  which  is  commonly  called  grass  ? 
What  remarkable  property  is  possessed  by  the  grasses  ? 
Upon  what  grain  do  the  inhabitants  of  hot  countries  chiefly 
live? 


180  MOSS FUNGI. 

Mention  some  other  useful  plants  of  the  family  of  grasses. 

Can  you  enumerate  some  of  the  principal  garden  vege- 
tables'? 

For  what  purposes  are  flax,  hemp,  rape,  and  hops  culti- 
vated 1 

What  vegetables  are  cultivated  for  feeding  cattle  ? 


LESSON  XL. 

MOSS FUNGI FERNS LICHENS SEA-WEED. 

THE  reader  has  been  told  that  most  plants  pro- 
duce flowers.  There  is,  however,  one  portion  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  on  which  flowers  are  never 
seen,  and  this  embraces  mosses,  fungi,  or  the  mush- 
room tribe,  lichens,  ferns,  and  sea-weeds. 

A  bed  of  moss  consists  of  a  great  number  of  very 
small  and  very  beautiful  plants.  Bare  rocks,  coral- 
reefs,  swamps,  bogs,  and  other  situations,  where 
larger  vegetables  would  not  grow,  are  covered  with 
moss ;  these,  by  their  decay,  form  a  stratum,  or 
layer  of  soil,  which  in  course  of  time  becomes 
planted  with  the  seeds  of  grass  and  other  herbs, 
and  thus  barren  places  are  made  fertile,  by  the 
agency  of  these  apparently  useless  objects. 

Fungi  are  those  fleshy  bodies  which  are  found 
so  plentifully  upon  decaying  wood,  in  damp  and 
shady  places.  Many  of  them  grow  to  a  conside- 
rable size,  and  are  of  a  beautiful  colour.  Great 
numbers  of  these  curious  vegetable  productions 
may  be  found,  by  examining  an  old  wood-heap  at 


FUNGI — PERNS — LICHENS.  181 

X 

the  beginning  of  October.  They  are  very  useful 
in  hastening  the  decay  and  removal  of  dead-wood, 
as  it  is  upon  this  that  the  greatest  part  of  them  live. 
Mushrooms,  toad-stools,  puff-balls,  fairy-purses, 
and  many  others,  are  very  common  in  our  fields 
and  lanes. 

Some  of  the  fungi,  as  mushrooms,  morels,  and 
truffles,  are  fit  for  food  ;  others  are  poisonous,  and 
we  should  be  very  careful  in  collecting  them,  not 
to  eat  any  but  such  as  we  know  are  esculent,  many 
accidents  having  happened  to  children,  from  a  want 
of  proper  caution.  The  seeds  of  mushrooms  are 
very  numerous,  and  grow  in  the  gills  as  they  are 
termed,  that  is,  the  ribbed  part  on  the  under  side 
of  the  head  or  cap.  It  has  been  calculated  that 
several  millions  are  contained  in  a  single  plant. 

Ferns  are  amongst  the  most  graceful  productions 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  They  are  found  adorn- 
ing shady  lanes,  and  woody  slopes,  with  their 
slender  stems,  and  delicate  foliage.  Nothing  can 
exceed  the  beauty  and  delicacy  of  the  half  unrolled 
leaves  of  a  young  fern,  and  we  should  never  pass 
one,  without  pausing  a  moment  to  admire  it,  and 
to  wonder  at  the  wisdom  which  has  so  charmingly 
clothed  it.  In  hot  countries,  ferns  grow  thirty  or 
forty  feet  high,  and  look  like  trees.  The  roots 
and  stems  of  this  species  of  plants,  when  ground, 
are  said  to  afford  a  very  tolerable  food. 

In  very  cold  countries,  where  corn  and  other 
field-vegetables  will  not  live,  the  ground  is  covered 
by  lichens  and  moss.  The  care  of  Almighty  God 
Q 


182  LICHENS. 

has  left  no  place,  however  bleak,  without  some 
means  of  supporting  animal  and  vegetable  life;  and 
thus  the  lichens  afford  nourishment  to  the  rein-deer 
in  those  inhospitable  regions,  where  it  is  the  only 
animal  that  can  exist,  and  where  it  supplies  nearly 
all  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants.  One  species  of 
lichen,  called  Iceland  moss,  is  used  among  our- 
selves, both  as  food  and  medicine. 

The  bottom  of  the  sea  is  also  clothed  with  vege- 
table productions.  These  are  called  sea-weed,  and 
in  some  situations  it  grows  so  plentifully  as  to 
cover  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  and  give  it  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  vast  field.  Sea-weeds  afford  food  to 
marine  animals,  and  are  likewise  burnt  for  making 
soda. 


Questions. 

What  plants  do  not  produce  flowers  1 

In  what  situations  do  mosses  grow  ? 

What  important  purpose  do  they  serve  when  decayed  1 

What  are  fungi,  and  on  what  do  they  live  in  general"? 

Name  some  of  the  fungi. 

Why  should  we  be  careful  in  eating  these  vegetables  ? 

In  what  countries  do  ferns  attain  a  great  size? 

In  what  country  do  lichens  grow  most  abundantly  ? 

What  useful  animal  finds  its  principal  food  among  then. 

Is  the  sea  provided  with  vegetable  productions  ? 

Of  what  use  is  sea-weed 1 


THE    MINERAL    KINGDOM. 


183 


LESSON  XLL 

THE    MINERAL    KINGDOM. 

THE  natural  objects  which  have  hitherto  been 
brought  under  our  readers'  notice,  have  life.  They 
are  found  in  the  early  stages  of  their  existence 
small  in  size,  then  growing  larger,  living  a  certain 
period,  and  in  the  end  dying.  Minerals  differ 
from  these  in  having  no  life.  They  are  found  in 
large  masses,  and  undergo  scarcely  any  change  in 
the  course  of  ages. 

We  have  also  seen,  that  an  all-wise  Creator  has 
placed  both  animals  and  vegetables  in  peculiar 
situations,  and  that  they  are  found  differing  in  form 
and  habits,  according  to  climate.  This  is  not  the 
case  with  mineral  bodies.  As  far  as  the  nature  of 
stone  and  metals  is  concerned,  they  are  nearly  the 
same  in  all  countries..  Volcanoes,  which  are  mi- 
nerals in  a  state  of  combustion,  burn  in  the  same 
manner,  and  with  the  same  results,  in  the  very 
hottest  and  the  very  coldest  countries. 


184          THE  MINERAL  KINGDOM. 

The  mineral  kingdom  forms  what  is  called  the 
crust  of  the  earth,  and  includes  rocks,  metals,  chalk, 
stones,  coal,  sand,  salt,  and  other  bodies.  What  is 
termed  the  soil,  or  that  soft  covering,  which  serves 
for  the  support  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  is  made 
up  of  decayed  animals  and  plants,  and  of  minerals, 
which  have  either  been  reduced  into  fine  powder, 
or  broken  into  small  fragments. 

The  mineral  kingdom  is  as  full  of  the  beauty 
of  design,  and  shows  the  handy-work  of  God  as 
forcibly,  as  the  most  finished  animal  or  vegetable. 
When  we  examine  it,  we  find  that  the  different 
parts  of  wrhich  it  is  composed  are  arranged  in  a 
certain  and  definite  manner,  which  is  the  same  in 
all  situations  and  in  all  climates. 

Our  own  country  is  particularly  favoured  in  the 
number  and  valuable  nature  of  its  mineral  pro- 
ductions. These  are,  indeed,  some  of  our  chief 
sources  of  wealth. 

Amongst  the  most  important  may  be  reckoned 
coal,  iron,  lead,  copper,  lime-stone,  clay,  building- 
stone,  and  salt. 

Almighty  wisdom,  in  laying  the  foundation  of 
the  world,  has  placed  the  different  parts  of  the 
mineral  kingdom  in  regular  order,  one  kind  of 
rock,  stone,  sand,  or  clay,  being  laid  over  the  other  : 
these  layers  are  called  strata,  and  are  found  to  be 
the  same  wherever  they  have  been  examined. 

In  some  of  these  strata,  or  layers,  the  remains 
of  animals,  such  as  bones  and  shells,  are  found  in 
great  abundance,  and  in  others,  those  of  vegetables 


THE  MINERAL  KINGDOM.        185 

in  immense  quantities;  these  are  known  under 
the  name  of  fossil  remains,  which  signifies  the 
change  of  such  substances  into  stone.  What  is 
very  singular  about  these  remains  is,  that  rocks 
composed  of  those  of  sea  shell-fish,  and  other  sea 
animals,  are  now  found  on  the  tops  of  lofty  moun- 
tains ;  yet  these  must,  at  one  period,  have  been  at 
the  bottom  of  the  sea. 


Questions. 

In  what  do  minerals  differ  from  animals  and  vegetables  ? 

Are  minerals  found  to  be  of  the  same  nature  in  all  situa- 
tions 1 

What  bodies  are  included  in  the  mineral  kingdom  1 

Of  what  is  the  soil  composed  ? 

Name  some  of  the  most  important  of  our  own  minerals? 

In  what  kind  of  order  are  minerals  arranged  ? 

What  are  fossil  remains,  and  where  are  they  found  ? 

What  is  singular  as  to  the  situation  in  which  some  fossil 
remains  are  found  ? 


*'• 

vi 


186        THE  MINERAL  KINGDOM. 


LESSON  XLIII. 

METALS THEIR  PROPERTIES THEIR  USEFULNESS. 

METALS  form  one  of  the  most  important  parts 
of  the  mineral  kingdom.  They  are  found  in  the 
earth,  lying  in  veins,  or  narrow  beds,  generally  in 
fissures  of  the  rock.  Sometimes  they  are  nearly 
pure,  but  more  commonly  mixed  with  other  mine- 
ral bodies,  and  in  this  state  are  called  ores^  as 
lead-ore/iron-ore,  and  copper-ore. 

Metals  are  the  heaviest  bodies  with  which  we 
are  acquainted.  This  may  be  easily  found  by  taking 
a  piece  of  iron  and  a  piece  of  stone,  or  any  other 
substance  of  the  same  size,  in  each  hand  ;  they  are 
also  lustrous  or  shining,  often  sonorous,  and  can 
be  bent  without  breaking. 

Some  of  the  metals,  as  gold  and  silver,  more 
particularly,  may  be  extended  or  drawn  into  very 


THE  MINERAL  KINGDOM.         187 

fine  wire,  and  beaten  into  leaves  thinner  than  the 
finest  paper.  A  single  ounce  of  gold  may  be 
spread  by  the  hammer  over  a  surface  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  square  .feet,  and  yet  remain  quite 
whole,  without  the  least  flaw  or  hole  in  it ;  and 
the  same  quantity  may  be  drawn  into  a  wire  more 
than  a  hundred  miles  long.  All  of  them  melt, 
or  are  fused,  by  heat. 

The  place  from  which  metals  are  procured  is 
termed  a  mine  :  these  often  run  to  great  distances 
underground,  and  the  miners  are  exposed  to  se- 
rious danger  at  times,  from  want  of  a  free  circula- 
tion of  air.  When  the  ore  has  been  dug  out  and 
brought  to  the  surface,  it  has  to  be  freed  from  the 
impurities  which  are  mixed  with  it :  this  is  done 
either  by  reducing  it  to  a  coarse  powder,  and  then 
washing  it  repeatedly,  when  the  water  carries  off 
the  lighter  particles,  and  leaves  the  metal  behind  ; 
or  it  is  roasted,  that  is,  mixed  with  coal  and  burnt. 
This  removes  most  of  the  impurities,  and  it  is  then 
smelted  and  made  fit  for  use. 

No  class  of  the  productions  of  nature  are  more 
useful  to  man  than  the  metals.  In  all  the  arts  of 
life,  and  in  all  our  manufactures,  they  are  quite 
indispensable  :  without  them,  indeed  many  of  these 
could  never  have  been  carried  into  effect.  Every 
implement  requiring  to  be  hard,  durable,  and  flex- 
ible, is  made  of  metal.  Vessels  that  have  to 
be  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire  are  made  of  the 
same  material,  and  every  thing  also  used  for  cut- 
ting, where  a  fine  edge  is  necessary. 


188  METALS. 

Wherever  we  look  around  us,  indeed,  the  uti- 
lity of  these  bodies  is  apparent.  Some  of  them, 
besides  being  extensively  employed  in  the  arts, 
and  for  domestic  purposes,  are  coined  into  money. 
Gold  and  silver  are  the  most  important  of  these,  and 
in  all  civilized  countries  are  employed  by  buyers 
and  sellers.  Commerce  is  chiefly  carried  on  by 
their  means,  and  by  the  exchange  of  one  article 
for  another,  the  value  of  each  being  first  calculated 
by  the  quantity  of  gold  or  silver  it  is  worth.  Cop- 
per is  largely  used,  amongst  ourselves  and  other 
nations,  for  coin  of  inferior  value. 


Questions. 

Where  are  metals  found  ? 

What  are  the  beds  called  in  which  they  lie  ? 

What  name  is  given  to  metals  when  got  in  an  impure 
state? 

Name  some  of  the  properties  of  metals. 

What  metals  are  the  most  extensible  ? 

Can  you  tell  what  space  an  ounce  of  gold  can  be  made  to 
cover,  and  what  length  of  wire  may  be  drawn  from  it? 

To  what  danger  are  miners  exposed  ? 

By  what  methods  is  the  ore  freed  from  impurities  ? 

Are  metals  indispensable  in  most  of  the  arts  and  manufac- 
tures ? 

Name  some  of  the  uses  to  which  they  are  applied  ? 

What  metals  are  coined  into  money  1 


IRON.  189 


LESSON  XLIIL 

IRON,  COPPER,  TIN,  AND  LEAD. 

OF  all  the  mineral  bodies  which  God  has  pro- 
vided for  our  use,  iron  is  the  most  universally 
valuable.  The  purposes  to  which  it  is  applied  are 
almost  numberless.  By  its  means  man  chiefly 
supplies  his  wants,  as  without  it  agriculture  could 
never  have  arrived  at  any  perfection,  nor  the 
plough  have  rendered  the  earth  fertile.  It  is  also 
essential  in  the  preparation  of  other  metals,  mi- 
ning-tools of  all  sorts  being  made  from  it,  so 
that  were  it  not  for  iron,  the  mineral  stores  of  the 
world  would  not  have  been  available  to  us. 

The  greatest  part  of  our  manufacturing  ma- 
chinery is  constructed  of  iron  ;  and  it  is  largely 
used  at  the  present  time  in  building  houses,  mills, 
and  bridges,  and  in  making  rail-roads  and  steam- 
engines  :  stoves,  cannon,  knives,  scissors,  saws, 
scythes,  and  cutlery  of  every  kind  are  likewise 
made  from  it. 

Steel  is  iron,  which  has  been  made  red-hot  in  a 
charcoal  fire.  This  may  be  hardened  to  any  de- 
gree by  being  heated,  and  then  suddenly  cooled 
by  plunging  it  into  cold  spring  water.  The  tem- 
per given  to  steel  by  this  mode  of  proceeding  is 
so  great,  that  a  sword  properly  prepared  will  cut 
through  iron  without  its  edge  being  turned,  or  it 
will  divide  a  hair  or  a  down  feather. 

Iron-ore  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 


190  IRON — COPPER. 

and  abundantly  in  the  United  States.  In  no 
country  is  it  more  valuable  than  in  our  own,  be- 
cause we  have  coal  and  mechanical  contrivances  for 
procuring  it,  and  turning  it  into  a  useful  shape. 

The  loadstone,  or  natural  magnet,  is  an  ore  of 
iron.  This  possesses  very  curious  properties, 
and  is  capable  of  transferring  them  to  any  piece 
of  iron  or  steel  on  which  it  is  rubbed.  Artificial 
magnets  made  in  this  manner  are  very  common, 
and  it  is  highly  curious  to  watch  how  they  attract 
or  draw  towards  them  needles,  penknives,  and 
other  things  made  of  iron,  and  to  feel  how  fast 
they  hold  them.  One  of  the  most  singular  and 
valuable  properties,  however,  of  the  magnet  is, 
that  when  properly  prepared  and  nicely  balanced, 
one  end  always  points  to  the  north.  The  needle 
contained  in  the  mariner's  compass  is  an  artificial 
magnet,  and  by  its  help  ships  can  be  steered  over 
the  widest  seas. 

'  The  iron-trade  has  long  been  one  of  the  staple 
trades  of  our  country,  and  employs  a  numerous 
body  of  labourers  and  artisans.  Nearly  a  million 
tons  are  also  annually  made  in  Great  Britain,  some 
part  of  which  is  exported,  but  by  far  the  greatest 
portion  is  used  amongst  themselves.  They 
send  almost  two  millions'  worth  of  hardware 
and  cutlery  to  other  countries  every  year. 

Copper  is  another  metal  which  is  applied  to  many 
useful  and  domestic  purposes;  boilers,  kettles,  and 
pans  being  made  from  it.  Brass  is  a  compound 
metal,  consisting  of  copper  and  another  metallic 


TIN — LEAD.  191 

body  called  zinc.  Bronze  is  composed  of  copper 
and  tin.  Some  care  is  required  in  using  copper. 
If  acids  or  fruits  are  put  into  vessels  of  this  metal, 
they  should  be  well  cleaned  afterwards,  or  a  green 
substance  or  salt  is  formed  on  them,  which  is 
poisonous.  For  this  reason  many  copper  pans  are 
covered  with  tin. 

Tin,  which  belongs  almost  exclusively  to  Eng- 
land, is  found  in  great  quantities  in  the  mines  of 
Cornwall.  It  is  an  important  article  of  commerce, 
as  the  English  supply  nearly  the  whole  world 
with  it.  Many  domestic  utensils  are  made  of  it, 
and  when  rolled  into  very  thin  leaves,  called  tin- 
foil, it  is  used  for  covering  sheets  of  iron,  which 
are  then  termed  block-tin,  from  which  cans  and 
many  other  things  are  made.  Pewter  is  a  compo- 
sition of  tin,  lead,  and  brass;  and  many  years  ago 
was  extensively  used  for  making  dinner  plates  and 
dishes. 

Lead,  of  which  there  are  many  rich  mines  in 
Missouri,  and  also  in  England  and  Wales,  is  em- 
ployed for  spouts  and  water-pipes,  and  is  rolled 
into  sheets  for  covering  roofs.  For  this  purpose 
it  is  better  fitted  than  many  other  metals,  as  it  is 
not  liable  to  be  so  much  injured  by  the  air.  Bul- 
lets are  cast  from  it  in  moulds  ;  and  small  shot  is 
now  made  by  first  melting  a  quantity,  and  then 
pouring  it  into  an  iron  vessel  pierced  with  holes, 
and  placed  at  the  top  of  a  high  building:  from  this 
it  is  allowed  to  fall  to  the  bottom  into  water,  and 
in  its  descent  it  assumes  a  round  shape. 


192  COAL. 

Questions. 

What  mineral  body  is  the  most  universally  useful  1 

How  is  it  that  iron  is  necessary  to  make  other  minerals 
available  to  us  ? 

Name  some  of  the  uses  to  which  iron  is  applied. 

What  is  steel,  and  how  may  it  be  hardened  ? 

Mention  how  far  it  may  be  tempered. 

What  is  the  magnet,  and  what  properties  does  it  possess  ! 

What  is  its  use  in  the  mariner's  compass  ? 

What  value  of  hardware  and  cutlery  do  the  English  export 
every  year  ? 

Why  is  care  required  in  the  use  of  copper  vessels  ? 

In  what  part  of  England  is  tin  found  abundantly? 

Why  is  it  an  important  article  of  commerce? 

What  is  block-tin  ? 

For  what  purposes  is  lead  chiefly  used  1 

Can  you  tell  how  small  shot  is  made  ? 


LESSON  XLIV. 

COAL,    SULPHUR,    AND    NAPHTHA. 

COAL  is  another  mineral  body  deserving  particu 
lar  attention.  One  great  reason  why  the  mineral 
kingdom  is  so  valuable  in  Great  Britain  arises  from 
her  coal,  as  this  enables  the  people  both  to  bring 
them  up  cheaply  from  the  greatest  depths  by  means 
of  the  steam-engine,  and  to  refine  them  when  they 
are  brought  to  the  surface.  Other  countries  have 
coal-mines  as  well  as  Great  Britain,  but  few  so 
plentifully. 


COAL.  193 

In  various  parts  of  the  United  States  coal  is 
found  abundantly,  particularly  in  Pennsylvania. 

Coal  and  wood,  though  so  different  in  their  ap- 
pearance, are  much  of  the  same  nature.  Coal-fields 
are  indeed  the  remains  of  vast  forests,  which  have 
at  some  distant  period  been  buried  under  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  and  in  the  course  of  time  changed 
into  this  mineral.  When  we  examine  pieces  of 
coal,  procured  from  some  of  our  mines,  the  shapes 
of  many  kinds  of  plants  can  be  discovered  in  them. 
Some  of  these  impressions  are  very  beautiful,  and 
so  perfect  that  the  particular  plant  can  be  easily 
named. 

Coals  are  found  lying  in  beds,  or  strata,  and 
always  with  strata  of  certain  other  mineral  bodies. 
By  boring  some  little  distance  into  the  earth,  we 
soon  find  out  whether  there  are  any  in  that  par- 
ticular situation,  for  if  we  bore  through  one  of  these 
bodies,  it  is  quite  certain  that  coal  is  below. 

This  mineral  is  called  combustible,  which  signi- 
fies capable  of  supporting  flame,  that  is,  of  being 
made  into  fires.  Besides  being  the  food  of  manu- 
factures and  commerce,  vast  quantities  are  used  as 
fuel  for  domestic  purposes,  and  contribute  greatly 
to  our  comfort.  In  London  nearly  two  million 
chaldrons  are  annually  consumed,  and  in  all  Eng- 
land upwards  of  fifteen  millions.  This  amazing 
consumption  we  might  suppose  would  exhaust  the 
mines.  Of  this,  however,  there  is  no  likelihood, 
as  it  has  been  calculated  that  there  is  a  supply  for 
four  thousand  years ;  besides  which  there  are 
R 


1 94  SULPHUR NAPHTHA. 

immense  beds  of  peat  and  other  vegetable  sub- 
stances, which  are  slowly  undergoing  a  change 
into  this  mineral. 

Sulphur  is  another  combustible  body,  which  is 
exceedingly  useful  in  various  arts.  Great  quanti- 
ties are  found  about  volcanoes,  as  Mount  ^Etna, 
Mount  Vesuvius,  in  Iceland,  and  Mexico.  It  is 
an  important  article  of  commerce  in  these  countries. 
Gunpowder  is  made  in  part  from  sulphur.  One 
of  its  principal  uses,  however,  is  for  making  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  is  essential  in  bleaching,  hat- 
making,  tanning,  and  dyeing. 

Naphtha  and  petroleum  are  two  combustible 
bodies,  also  belonging  to  the  mineral  kingdom. 
They  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
either  floating  on  the  surface  of  water,  or  forming 
actual  springs.  They  are  very  inflammable,  and 
burn  like  oil  in  lamps. 


Questions. 

To  the  possession  of  what  mineral  does  Great  Britain  owe 
much  of  her  wealth  ? 

What  is  the  reason  that  the  mineral  kingdom  is  so  valuable 
in  England  ? 

Are  coal  and  wood  much  alike  in  their  nature  ? 

What  are  coal-fields  ? 

WThat  do  we  find  when  we  examine  pieces  of  coal  ? 

How  many  years  is  it  supposed  the  coal  of  England  will 
last? 

In  what  situations  is  sulphur  plentifully  found  1 

What  acid  is  made  from  it,  and  for  what  purposes  is  it 
used? 

Are  there  any  other  combustible  bodies  in  the  mineral 
kingdom  ? 


ROCKS — GRANITE — LIMESTONE.  195 


LESSON  XLV. 

ROCKS GRANITE LIME-STONE FREE-STONE — 

SLATE CLAY SALT. 

MOUNTAINS  and  hills  are,  in  general,  masses  of 
rock  of  various  kinds.  Some  of  these  tower  to 
great  heights,  being  many  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  One  kind  of  rock  called  granite 
is  very  hard,  and  of  this  some  of  the  highest  moun- 
tains are  composed.  The  hardness  and  toughness 
of  granite  has  caused  it  to  be  used  for  laying  down 
roads,  as  it  lasts  much  longer  than  other  kinds  of 
stone:  the  pavement,  the  curb-stones,  and  the  car- 
riage-ways in  London  are,  in  most  instances,  of  this 
rock,  which  has  been  brought  chiefly  from  Scotland. 
The  Astor  House  in  New  York  is  entirely  built 
of  it,  and  some  of  our  public  buildings  are  also  of 
the  same  substance.  Granite  takes  a  fine  polish, 
and  is  difficult  to  break. 

Lime-stone  forms  many  mountainous  ranges  in 
England,  as  in  Derbyshire,  Somersetshire,  and 
Yorkshire.  This  kind  of  rock  often  contains  lead 
ore,  and  is  quite  full  of  fossil  remains,  so  much  so, 
indeed,  that  it  would  seem  to  be  almost  entirely 
composed  of  them,  principally  the  shells  of  mollus- 
cous animals.  This  stone,  when  burnt  in  a  kiln 
with  coal,  becomes  lime,  which  is  largely  used  in 
agriculture,  for  spreading  over  the  ground,  and 


196  LIME-STONE — CLAY — SALT. 

when  slaked  or  thrown  into  water,  it  becomes  hot, 
and  crumbles  into  a  white  powder,  of  which  mor- 
tar is  made,  and  the  whitewash  with  which  many 
of  our  rooms  are  washed.  The  different  kinds  of 
marbles  are  lime-stone.  Many  beautiful  kinds  are 
found  in  the  United  States,  but  the  finest  and  best 
are  imported  from  Italy  and  Sicily. 

The  most  useful  stones  for  building  are  free- 
stone and  sand-stone.  Granite,  which  is  the  most 
durable,  is  so  difficult  to  work,  that  it  is  very  ex- 
pensive ;  but  the  Portland-stone  is  soft  when  taken 
out  of  the  quarry  or  stone  pit,  and  may  be  cut 
very  easily,  by  a  saw,  into  blocks  of  a  proper  size; 
when  it  has  been  exposed  some  time  to  the  air  it 
hardens. 

Clay  is  found  lying  in  vast  beds  under  the  soil 
of  many  countries.  It  is  generally  stiff,  somewhat 
tenacious,  and  capable,  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
water,  of  being  moulded  into  a  variety  of  shapes. 
Clay  is  of  very  great  utility.  Bricks,  so  much 
used  for  building  houses,  are  made  of  it. 

All  kinds  of  earthenware  are  made  from  a  clay 
called  potters'-clay.  England  is  particularly  fa- 
mous for  her  manufacture  of  pots,  and  one  large 
district  in  Staffordshire  is  named  the  Potteries, 
from  its  being  almost  covered  with  works  devoted 
to  this  purpose. 

Common  salt,  which  is  of  such  importance  to 
us,  as  a  seasoning  for  our  food,  and  in  many  of 
the  arts,  is  found  either  dissolved  in  water,  as  in 
salt  springs  and  sea-water,  or  in  solid  masses,  as 


SALT.  197 

rock  salt.  This  last  is  dug  out  of  the  earth  like 
other  minerals ;  the  salt  is  procured  from  springs 
and  from  sea  water,  by  allowing  the  liquid  to 
evaporate.  The  United  States  is  rich  in  salt- 
springs,  and  they  are  also  plentifully  found  in 
many  other  countries. 

These  are  thy  glorious  works,  Parent  of  Good, 
Almighty !  thine  this  universal  frame, 
Thus  wondrous  fair !  and  loudly  these  proclaim 
Thy  goodness. 


Questions. 

What  are  mountains  and  hills  I 

What  kind  of  rock  forms  some  of  the  highest  mountains  ? 

Why  is  granite  so  useful  in  road  making  ? 

From  whence  has  the  granite  been  chiefly  brought,  with 
which  the  streets  of  London  are  paved  ? 

In  which  counties  does  lime  stone  form  ranges  of  hills? 

Of  what  does  this  kind  of  rock  seem  principally  composed  ? 

To  what  uses  is  lime-stone  applied,  and  how  is  it  prepared] 

What  is  marble  ? 

What  are  the  most  useful  building  stones  ? 

What  name  is  given  to  that  part  of  England  where 
earthenware  is  principally  made  I 

In  what  states  is  common  salt  found  1 

How  is  it  procured  from  sea  water  and  from  salt  springs  ? 


(198) 

ON   THE 

STRUCTURE,  SENSES,  AND  HABITS 

or 

MAN. 


LESSON  I. 

OF    MAN    IN    GENERAL. 

MAN,  who  in  the  beginning  obtained  from  God 
"  dominion  over  the  fish  of  the  sea,  and  over  the 
fowl  of  the  air,  and  over  every  living  thing  that 
moveth  upon  the  earth,"  obtained  from  him  also 
higher  powers,  and  a  structure  of  a  superior  kind. 

Man  is  the  only  creature  on  our  earth  that 
walks  erect.  This  position  of  the  body  enables 
us  to  look  forwards,  or  around  us,  with  ease,  and 
gives  us  an  appearance  of  authority  and  dignity. 

Man  is  the  only  being  possessed  of  hands.  By 
the  aid  of  these  beautiful  organs  he  can  perform  a 
multitude  of  wonderful  and  delicate  operations, 
quite  beyond  the  reach  of  other  creatures.  He 
builds  houses,  makes  clothes,  constructs  the  most 
curious  machines,  and  applies  them  to  an  endless 
variety  of  purposes. 

The  mechanism  of  the  hand  is  at  once  perfect 
and  beautiful.  Animals  of  the  tribe  of  monkeys 


oi1  MAHT.  199 

approach  the  nearest  to  us  in  this  respect,  and  are 
called  quadrumanous,  or  four-handed  ;  but  their 
thumbs  are  exceedingly  imperfect,  as  compared 
with  ours,  and  their  hands  altogether  fitted  for 
different  purposes. 

The  noblest  gift,  however,  which  has  been 
bestowed  upon  man  by  our  bountiful  Creator,  is 
THE  SOUL  ;  an  intelligent  and  immortal  principle, 
including  the  mind  and  affections.  It  is  this 
which  raises  us  above  all  other  animals,  for  it 
enables  us  to  love  God,  to  reason,  to  think,  and  to 
compare.  It  is  this  which  makes  us  charitable, 
generous,  and  humane ;  which  gives  us  taste  and 
ingenuity,  a  sense  of  right  and  wrong,  and  above 
all,  of  religion.  Hence  we  see,  on  every  side, 
places  of  public  worship,  hospitals  for  the  sick 
poor,  manufactories,  and  courts  of  justice.  It  is 
this  also  which  makes  man,  though  naturally  the 
most  defenceless  of  creatures,  the  most  powerful, 
and  capable  of  overcoming  "  every  thing  that 
moveth  on  the  face  of  the  earth." 

Most  animals  are  provided  with  some  outward 
means  of  defence.  Oxen  have  a  thick  and  tough 
skin  covered  with  hair,  and  horns  and  hoofs  ;  the 
tortoise  has  its  armour  of  shell  ;  and  the  lion  has 
teeth  and  strong  claws. 

Man  has  nothing  whatever  of  this  kind,  but  his 
reasoning  faculty  enables  him  to  take  measures 
by  which  he  may  protect  himself  from  the  fiercest 
and  strongest  among  other  creatures,  and  to  destroy 
them  for  his  own  benefit. 


200  OF    MAN. 

It  is  the  soul  also  which  displays  itself  in  our 
speech, — which  enables  us  to  improve  ourselves, 
to  acquire  knowledge,  and  to  become  wise,  learned, 
and  good.  How  different  from  ourselves  is  man 
in  a  savage  state!  how  rude  his  habits!  how  igno- 
rant he  is!  and  how  few  are  his  wants!  yet  this 
man,  having  a  soul  and  reason,  may,  by  care,  be 
raised  to  our  own  level. 

This  is  not  the  case  with  brutes.  The  bird 
built  its  nest,  and  the  mole  burrowed  out  its  under- 
ground dwelling,  in  the  very  earliest  ages  of  the 
world,  as  perfectly  and  just  in  the  same  way  as  at 
present ;  and  will  continue  to  do  the  same  as  long 
as  they  exist,  without  change  or  improvement. 


Questions.  .    .  . 

Which  is  the  superior  of  all  animals  ? 

What  is  the  proper  posture  of  man  ? 

Has  any  other  creature  besides  man  hands  ? 

Are  the  hands  of  monkeys  equal  in  structure  to  our  own, 
and  capable  of  being  applied  to  the  same  purposes  ? 

What  is  it  that  raises  man  so  much  above  other  animals  ? 

Mention  some  of  the  effects  produced  by  mind? 

Which  is  naturally  the  most  defenceless  animal  ? 

By  what  means  then  is  man  enabled  to  protect  himself  ? 

What  is  the  cause  that  the  savage  may  be  civilized  and 
improved  1 

Do  inferior  animals  undergo  any  change  in  their  habit  ? 


THE    HUMAN    BODY.  201 

LESSON  II. 

GENERAL    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    HUMAN    BODY. 

OUR  body  is  a  wonderful  piece  of  machinery, 
perfect  in  all  its  parts,  curious  in  all  its  arrange- 
ment, and  admirably  fitted  for  our  peculiar  wants. 
We  have  going  on  within  us,  at  all  times,  an 
infinite  variety  of  singular  operations,  such  as 
digestion,  nutrition,  secretion,  and  circulation; 
and  yet  we  are  not  sensible  of  them,  although  there 
are  thousands  of  vessels  at  work ;  some  removing 
parts,  some  laying  down  fresh  matter,  some  car- 
rying black  blood,  some  red  blood,  some  bile,  and 
some  watery  fluids. 

The  heart  contracts  and  expands,  and  sends  a 
stream  of  fresh  blood  through  our  bodies  seventy 
or  eighty  times  every  minute.  The  lungs  are 
filled  with  fresh  air,  and  this  is  returned  quite 
changed  above  a  thousand  times  every  hour,  and 
all  these  things  are  done  so  gently,  and  by  parts 
so  perfectly  made,  that  were  we  not  told  of  the 
wonders  within  us,  we  should  be  in  ignorance  of 
their  existence.  Let  us,  however,  inquire  about 
them ;  and  an  examination  of  our  own  frames 
cannot  fail  to  increase  our  love  of  God's  goodness, 
and  our  admiration  of  his  almighty  wisdom  and 
power. 

Our  bodies  consist  of  solid  and  fluid  parts.  The 
fluids  are  by  far  the  most  plentiful.  The  body  of 


202  THE    HUMAN    BODY. 

a  full  grown  native  of  the  Azores,  where  the 
people  formerly  exposed  their  dead  in  open  places 
to  be  dried  by  the  sun,  has  been  found  weighing 
not  more  than  twelve  pounds,  though  the  bones 
and  other  solids  were  quite  perfect  :  yet  this  must 
have  weighed  at  least  120  Ibs.  when  living,  or  in 
its  natural  state. 

Most  of  our  organs  are  double.  Thus  we  have 
two  eyes ;  the  nose  is  divided ;  the  tongue  consists 
of  two  parts ;  the  neck  has  a  set  of  muscles  and 
vessels  on  each  side ;  we  have  two  arms  and 
hands ;  two  legs  and  feet ;  and  the  brain  consists 
of  two  divisions.  These  double  parts  are  very 
similar  in  their  structure. 

Those  organs  by  which  we  move  from  place  to 
place,  and  eat,  drink,  and  perform  manual  labour, 
and  other  actions,  are  under  our  own  government 
or  will :  that  is,  we  can  employ  them  or  not,  just 
as  we  choose;  hence  they  are  named  voluntary. 

Other  organs,  on  the  constant  action  of  which 
our  very  life  depends,  are  not  under  our  own 
government.  The  heart,  the  lungs,  the  intes- 
tines, and  other  parts,  act,  whether  we  are 
waking  or  sleeping,  whether  we  wish  or  not,  and 
on  this  account  are  called  involuntary.  Over 
these  our  Divine  Author  has  given  us  no  power, 
or  our  lives  would  be  in  continual  danger,  as 
our  passions  and  negligence  might  prove  our 
destruction. 

The  whole  body  is  covered  with  skin.  This 
serves  as  a  protection  to  the  delicate  and  sensitive 


THE    HUMAN    BODY.  203 

parts  beneath.  The  outside  of  the  skin  is  in  itself 
insensible,  but  it  is  so  thin  that  we  feel  through  it 
The  importance  of  the  skin  as  a  defence  against 
pain,  is  soon  known  when  a  portion  is  removed  by 
a  blister  or  by  any  other  means ;  we  cannot  then 
bear  any  thing  to  come  near  the  part;  even  the 
very  air  gives  us  an  uneasy  feeling. 

All  the  parts  of  our  body  are  held  together  by 
a  fine  membrane  or  web ;  called  from  its  form  the 
cellular  membrane ;  as  it  is  made  up  of  a  number 
of  very  small  cells.  This  makes  parts  play  easily 
one  over  another,  and  lets  them  distend  or  swell 
out,  without  doing  injury.  It  is  also  through  this 
that  vessels  and  nerves  pass  from  one  part  to 
another. 


Questions. 

Mention  some  of  the  operations  constantly  going  on 
within  us. 

Are  we  sensible  of  these  operations  ? 

What  kinds  of  fluids  are  carrying  backwards  and  forwards 
in  our  vessels "? 

How  often  does  the  heart  act  in  a  minute  ] 

How  many  times  are  the  lungs  filled  and  emptied  in  an 
hour? 

Of  what  are  our  bodies  composed  ? 

Are  the  solids  or  fluids  most  abundant  ? 

What  is  remarkable  about  our  organs  1 

What  parts  are  called  voluntary,  and  why  ? 

What  parts  act  without  our  knowledge  or  will  ? 

Of  what  use  is  the  skin,  and  how  may  we  know  this  1 

How  arc  the  different  parts  of  the  body  connected  together  ? 


204  BONES,  JOINTS,  MUSCLES. 


LESSON  III. 

ORGANS    OF    SUPPORT    AND   MOTION BONES 

JOINTS MUSCLES. 

CERTAIN  parts  of  our  bodies  are  very  hard  and 
firm  ;  these  are  called  bones,  and  consist,  in  a 
great  measure,  of  earthy  matter.  When  these  are 
jointed,  or  articulated  together,  they  form  the 
skeleton. 

The  form  and  make  of  the  skeleton  are  beauti- 
fully perfect,  and  Jit  ted  to  our  system  with  the 
most  surprising  art ;  so  far  is  the  skeleton  from 
being  a  thing  to  cause  terror,  that  the  more  we 
examine  it,  the  more  we  admire  it. 

The  bones  form  the  frame  work  of  the  body,  on 
which  the  soft  parts  are  arranged  and  supported. 
They  are  held  together  by  means  of  ligaments, 
which  are  strong,  whitish  bands,  crossing  from  one 
bone  to  another,  and  commonly  called  gristle. 

The  ends  of  the  bone,  where  they  meet,  are  co- 
vered with  a  substance  somewhat  like  gristle,  called 
cartilage.  This  is  very  elastic,  or  springy,  and 
preserves  them  from  being  injured  by  the  shocks 
and  motions  of  our  bodies.  That  they  may  move 
easily  one  upon  another,  they  are  furnished  with 
glandular  bodies,  which  keep  them  constantly 
smooth  by  means  of  an  oily  fluid.  The  places 
where  bones  meet  are  called  joints,  as  the  shoulder- 


BONES,  JOINTS,  MUSCLES.  ,205 

joint,  the  elbow-joint,  the  wrist-joint,  the  knee- 
joint,  and  others. 

The  number  of  bones  in  the  human  body  is 
about  260.  They  are  divided  into  the  bones  of 
the  head,  of  the  trunk  or  body,  of  the  upper  ex- 
tremities or  arms,  and  of  inferior  extremities  or 
legs.  Their  shapes  are  very  various,  some  being 
long,  round,  and  hollow,  as  those  of  the  thigh,  the 
leg,  and  the  arm ;  others  are  flat,  as  the  shoulder- 
blade,  the  breast-bone,  and  the  bones  of  the  head  ; 
and  others  are  in  small  rounded  pieces,  as  those  of 
the  hands  and  feet. 

Bones  are  very  soft  in  infancy,  only  part  of  them 
being  ossified,  or  made  into  bone.  As  we  grow 
older,  and  have  occasion  to  use  our  limbs  for  mo- 
tion and  support,  they  harden;  and  about  the 
fifteenth  year  of  our  age,  are  perfect. 

Muscles  are  the  organs  or  parts  by  which  we 
move  our  bodies.  What  we  call  flesh  is  muscle, 
and  this  consists  of  a  number  of  fibres,  or  little 
threads,  bound  together  in  bundles,  by  the  cellular 
membrane,  and  a  strong  sheath  on  the  outside. 
One  of  these  bundles  forms  a  muscle.  Muscles  are 
fastened  to  the  bones  by  a  tough  strong  substance, 
which  seems  to  grow  into  it. 

Muscles  have  the  power  of  shortening  and 
lengthening  themselves,  and  thus  produce  motion. 
For  example,  stretch  out  your  arm  : — this  is  done 
by  the  muscles  at  the  back  of  the  upper  arm,  which 
arise  above  the  elbow-joint,  and  are  fixed  into  the 
bone  below  it.  When  these  contract  or  shorten 
S 


£06  BONES,  JOINTS,  MUSCLES. 

themselves,  therefore,  they  pull  the  arm  backwards, 
or  stretch  it  out.  For  this  reason  they  are  called 
extensors,  or  extending  muscles. 

Now  bend  your  arm.  This  motion  is  perform 
ed  by  the  muscles  on  the  front  of  the  arm.  These 
are  fixed  at  their  upper  ends  above  the  elbow,  near 
the  shoulder,  and  at  their  lower  ends  just  below 
the  elbow.  When  these  contract  or  shorten  them- 
selves, they  pull  the  arm  upwards,  and  thus  bend 
it.  On  this  account  they  are  called  flexors,  or  bend- 
ing muscles,  and  the  same  throughout  the  body. 

Muscles,  before  they  terminate,  or  are  fixed  into 
the  bone,  are  generally  reduced  to  a  thick  cord  of 
white  glistening  substance,  which  is  very  strong, 
and  called  tendon.  Where  this  passes  over  joints, 
it  is  bound  down  by  a  strong  band,  to  keep  it  in 
its  place  when  the  muscle  is  acting,  and  to  preserve 
the  shape  or  symmetry  of  the  parts. 

The  power  with  which  muscles  contract  is  very 
great,  and  is  termed  irritability.  Our  voluntary 
muscles  are  soon  tired,  and  require  rest,  or  they 
get  weak,  but  those  which  are  involuntary  are  in 
perpetual  motion,  and  are  never  fatigued,  but  keep 
acting,  without  rest,  from  the  hour  of  our  birth  to 
that  of  our  death. 


Questions. 

Of  what  do  bones  chiefly  consist  ? 
What  name  is  given  to  all  the  bones  when  put  together  ? 
How  are  the  bones  held  together,  and  what  are  their  ends 
lined  with  ? 


STANDING,  WALKING.  207 

What  are  joints,  and  by  what  means  are  they  kept  smooth? 

How  is  the  skeleton  divided  T 

At  what  age  are  our  bones  completely  hardened  ? 

What  organs  enable  us  to  move  our  bodies  ? 

How  are  muscles  composed  1 

By  what  means  is  motion  produced  in  muscles  ? 

Can  you  describe  by  what  means  your  arm  is  bent  and 
stretched  1 

What  are  extensor  muscles  ? 

What  are  flexor  muscles  1 

What  are  the  ends  of  muscles  called  ? 

What  difference  is  there  in  the  action  of  voluntary  and 
involuntary  muscles  ? 


LESSON  IV. 

STANDING WALKING RUNNING — LEAPING 

SITTING. 

THE  principal  actions  which  our  bodies  can  per- 
form, are  standing,  walking,  running,  leaping,  and 
sitting.  Besides  these,  the  hand  and  fingers  are 
capable  of  a  wonderful  variety  of  minute  and 
delicate  operations  ;  and  the  muscles  of  other  parts 
of  our  bodies,  as  the  face,  the  throat,  and  the  eyes 
have  each  a  great  variety  of  motions. 

How  do  you  stand  ?  Your  body  is  erect,  and 
you  keep  yourself  from  inclining  either  to  one  side 
or  the  other.  If  it  were  the  will  of  God  that  you 
should  die  in  this  posture,  you  would  fall  down  at 
once  ;  or  if  any  other  cause  should  deprive  you  of 


208  STANDING,  WALKING. 

strength,  or  if  you  should  fall  asleep,  or  forget 
yourself,  the  same  thing  would  follow. 

Standing  is,  therefore,  an  action  of  the  voluntary 
muscles  ;  you  wish  to  stand,  and  that  enables  you 
to  do  it.  This  is  done  by  what  we  may  call  a 
balance  of  action  between  the  two  great  orders  of 
muscles,  the  flexors,  and  the  extensors.  ^  These 
extensors,  by  acting  on  the  bones,  keep  the  limbs 
and  trunk  erect,  whilst  the  flexors  yield  and  make 
no  efforts  to  contract. 

By  these  means,  we  are  enabled  to  retain  an 
upright  posture.  But  we  are  soon  fatigued  by  it. 
This  is  owing  to  there  being  no  change  of  action, 
one  set  of  muscles  only  being  employed.  Hence 
when  we  are  obliged  to  stand  for  a  long  time,  we 
are  continually  changing  our  posture,  now  resting 
on  one  leg,  and  then  on  the  other.  This  is  done 
in  order  to  relieve  the  muscles  from  their  state  of 
continued  action,  by  calling  others  for  a  moment 
into  play. 

Walking  is  easier  to  us  than  standing  quite 
still,  for  this  reason,  that  both  sets  of  muscles, 
namely,  the  flexors  and  extensors,  act  now  one  and 
now  the  other,  and  thus  are  constantly  relieving 
each  other. 

When  we  walk,  one  leg  is  lifted  and  carried  for- 
wards ;  at  the  same  time,  the  body  is  made  to  rest 
on  the  leg  that  is  planted  on  the  ground.  The  leg 
which  has  been  carried  forwards  is  now  fixed  on 
the  ground,  and  the  body  is  shifted  upon  it,  by  the 
strong  muscles  of  the  trunk  and  thigh  bone.  Thus 


WALKING,  RUNNING,  LEAPING.  209 

what  is  called  the  centre  of  gravity — or  the 
point  on  which  the  greatest  weight  falls — is  borne 
by  turns  upon  each  limb,  and  we  move  forwards 
step  by  step. 

Running  and  leaping  are  varieties  of  the  same 
action,  as  when  we  run,  we  make  a  succession  of 
short  leaps.  These  differ  from  walking,  inasmuch 
as  in  the  latter  action  the  body  always  rests  on  one 
limb;  whilst,  in  leaping  and  running,  it  is  for  a  time 
raised  quite  above  the  ground,  and  carried  for- 
wards by  the  impetus  or  force  which  has  been 
given  to  it. 

Now,  how  is  this  managed  ?  When  we  wish  to 
leap,  we  bend  our  body  forward.  In  this  state,  we 
exert  violently  all  the  extensor  or  stretching  mus- 
cles of  these  parts,  as  well  as  those  of  the  arms;  and 
such  is  their  power,  that  they  lift  us  up,  and  throw 
us  to  very  considerable  distances.  When  we  run 
fast,  our  bodies  acquire  so  much  velocity,  that  we 
cannot  stop  at  once,  as  we  can  in  walking,  but  are 
obliged  to  check  ourselves  by  degrees. 

It  is  highly  useful  and  necessary  to  exercise 
ourselves  in  walking,  running,  leaping,  and  other 
actions  requiring  the  use  of  our  muscles.  By 
these  means,  they  become  stronger,  and  capable  of 
more  exertion,  and  we  are  less  liable  to  fatigue. 
This  exercise  is  called  gymnastics,  but  we  should 
be  careful  not  to  over  exert  ourselves,  many  injuries 
and  accidents  having  arisen  from  a  want  of  due 
caution. 

s2 


210  ARTERIES,  VEINS. 

Questions. 

Is  standing  a  voluntary  action  ? 

What  order  of  muscles  keep  us  erect  ? 

Why  do  we  so  soon  feel  tired  by  standing  ? 

Why  is  walking  easier  to  us  than  standing? 

Have  you  any  idea  by  what  means  you  walk  ? 

How  do  running  and  leaping  differ  from  walking? 

Can  you  tell  how  you  manage  to  leap  ? 

What  muscles  lift  us  up  by  their  action  ? 

What  benefit  do  we  derive  from  exercising  our  bodies  ? 

What  is  this  exercise  called? 

Why  should  we  be  careful  in  exercising  ? 


LESSON  V. 

VESSELS  OP  THE  HUMAN  BODY  IN  GENERAL- 
ARTERIES VEINS. 

NOTHING  is  more  surprising  than  the  vast  num- 
ber of  vessels,  filled  with  different  kinds  of  fluids, 
which  crowd  our  bodies  in  every  part.  If  we 
prick  ourselves  with  the  finest  needle,  blood  is 
sure  to  follow, — a  proof  that  it  has  wounded  some 
vessel. 

Vessels  are  tubes  having  thin  yet  strong  coats. 
One  set  of  vessels  carries  the  blood  from  the  heart 
— these  are  called  arteries  ;  another  set  receives 
it,  and  carries  it  back — these  are  called  veins ;  a 
third  takes  up  the  nourishing  juices  from  our  intes- 
tines— these  are  called  lacteals  ;  a  fourth  set  rises 
from  the  surfaces  of  the  joints  and  other  places,  and 


ARTERIES,  VEINS.  211 

removes  the  fluids  which  are  poured  out  into  them 
— these  are  called  absorbents ;  a  fifth  set  covers 
the  surface  of  the  body,  the  mouth,  the  linings  of 
other  great  cavities,  and  is  always  exuding  or 
secreting  fluid  to  keep  them  moist — these  are  call- 
ed secretory  vessels.  How  wonderful  it  is,  that 
we  can  run,  jump,  and  perform  other  violent  exer- 
cises, without  disturbing  the  action  of  these  thou- 
sands of  delicate  organs. 

The  arteries  are  the  vessels  which  convey  blood 
from  the  heart  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  One  great 
artery  arises  directly  from  the  heart.  This  is  very 
large.  Before  it  has  gone  far,  however,  it  begins 
to  divide,  or  branch,  and,  in  its  progress  along  the 
body,  it  sends  off  divisions  to  all  the  parts  which 
it  passes. 

When  this  has  reached  the  lower  part  of  the 
back-bone,  it  divides  itself  into  two  large  vessels, 
one  of  which  goes  downwards  to  supply  each  of 
the  lower  limbs.  These  branches,  as  they  pass 
along,  keep  ramifying,  or  dividing,  till  they  are 
so  small,  that  we  can  no  longer  trace  them. 

Every  thread  of  muscle,  and  the  coats  of  the 
arteries  themselves,  are  thus  abundantly  provided 
with  small  vessels  ;  nay,  so  full  are  the  muscles, 
that  their  red  colour  is  owing  to  blood  vessels. 

The  large  arteries  are  very  carefully  protected 
from  injury,  and  generally  lie  buried  deep  amongst 
the  muscles.  Were  they  to  be  cut,  we  should  soon 
bleed  to  death.  There  are  some  places,  as  the 
wrist  and  the  elbow,  where  they  have  to  pass  over 


ARTERIES,  VEINS. 

joints,  and  where  they  must  come  near  the  surface. 
We  should  be  careful  about  these  parts,  as  many 
accidents  have  happened  from  boys  playing  care- 
lessly with  penknives. 

When  we  put  our  finger  upon  an  artery,  it  is 
found  to  beat,  or  pulsate  ;  and  if  one  is  pricked, 
the  blood  springs  from  it  in  jets,  and  is  of  a  bright 
florid  vermilion  colour. 

Arteries,  when  they  have  divided  into  the  small- 
est branches,  and  reached  the  extreme  parts  of  the 
body,  end,  by  inosculating,  or  meeting  mouth  to 
mouth,  with  the  beginnings  of  veins.  These  carry 
the  blood  back  to  the  heart,  as  it  has  become  chang- 
ed in  its  qualities  during  its  progress  through  the 
system,  and  requires  to  be  renewed. 

The  coats  of  veins  are  much  thinner  than  those 
of  arteries,  and  they  are  provided  with  valves  to 
assist  the  blood  along  them.  The  blood  passes 
along  veins  slowly,  and  is  of  a  dark  colour.  When 
one  is  opened,  its  contents  escape  in  a  quiet  stream, 
and  not  in  jets  or  leaps,  like  those  of  an  artery. 
The  blue  lines  which  we  see  under  our  skin  are 
veins.  These  continue  to  enlarge  as  they  approach 
the  heart,  and  end  in  very  large  vessels,  which 
pour  the  blood  into  one  of  its  parts. 


Questions. 

What  proof  have  we  that  our  bodies  are  full  of  vessels  ? 
Mention  the  names  of  some  of  these  vessels. 
What  are  arteries,  and  what  is  it  they  do  ? 


NERVES,  GLANDS,  SECRETION.  213 

Does  more  than  one  great  artery  arise  from  the  heart  to 
supply  the  body  ? 

What  becomes  of  it? 

In  what  manner  are  the  great  vessels  protected  ? 

How  does  blood  flow  from  an  artery,  and  what  is  its 
colour  ? 

Can  you  tell  how  veins  begin  1 

What  vessels  carry  the  blood  back  to  the  heart  ? 

How  does  blood  flow  from  a  vein  ?  and  what  is  its  colour  1 

Where  may  veins  be  seen  1 


LESSON  VI. 

NERVES GLANDS SECRETION. 

WHEN  we  examine  the  great  blood  vessels,  we 
generally  find  that  they  have  lying  near  them 
white  cords.  These  are  nerves. 

All  nerves  are  connected  either  with  the  brain 
or  spinal  marrow.  Like  the  arteries,  they  are 
large  at  their  beginning,  and  as  they  remove  from 
it,  become  smaller  and  smaller,  by  sending  off 
branches.  These  end  in  the  substance  of  our 
bodies,  in  filaments  or  twigs,  so  very  small,  that 
we  should  not  know  of  their  presence,  were  it  not 
that  the  parts  are  sensible,  or  possess  feeling. 

Nerves  are  the  organs  by  which  we  are  made 
acquainted  with  the  world  around  us.  By  their 
means,  we  feel,  see,  hear,  smell,  and  taste.  If  the 
aerve  supplying  the  tongue  is  injured,  we  can  no 
longer  perceive  that  what  we  eat  has  any  flavour. 


214  NERVES,  GLANDS,  SECRETION. 

If  the  nerve  supplying  one  of  the  fingers  is  cut 
through,  that  finger  is  no  longer  sensible  ;  we  may 
prick  it,  or  crush  it,  and  feel  no  pain. 

Besides  this,  we  can  no  longer  move  it,  as  the 
nerves  are  the  medium  by  which  we  will,  or  call 
muscles  into  play.  We  thus  see  that  a  person  who 
labours  under  palsy,  which  is  a  disease  of  the  brain 
or  spinal  marrow,  from  which  nerves  proceed,  can- 
not move  the  affected  limb  ;  it  hangs  down  quite 
powerless  and  useless. 

Every  part  of  our  body,  except  the  hair,  the 
nails,  the  bones,  and  some  others,  is  full  of  nervous 
twigs  or  filaments.  We  cannot  cut  or  scratch  our- 
selves anywhere  without  feeling  pain.  We  should 
not  suffer  this,  were  it  not  that  a  nerve  is  cut  or 
torn. 

We  find,  in  certain  parts  of  our  system,  small, 
roundish,  or  oval  bodies,  abundantly  supplied  with 
blood  vessels  and  nerves.  These  are  glands. 
When  we  have  a  bad  cold  and  sore  throat,  many 
of  these  may  be  felt  about  the  neck,  as  they  swell 
and  become  painful  at  these  times.  The  breast  is 
also  a  gland,  and  there  are  many  others  in  various 
places.  When  we  examine  them,  we  see  many 
vessels  going  from  them,  which,  in  some  instances, 
unite  and  form  what  is  called  a  duct,  or  outlet. 

These  glands  are  the  parts  of  secretion.  A 
secretion  means  a  peculiar  fluid  made  from  the 
blood,  as  the  saliva,  the  tears,  bile,  and  others. 
The  gland  secreting  the  saliva  lies  on  the  cheek, 
just  before  the  ear,  and  the  duct  opens  in  the 


NERVES,  GLANDS,  SECRETION.  215 

inside  of  the  mouth.  The  lachrymal,  or  tear, 
gland  is  concealed  in  the  orbit  of  the  eye.  When 
we  weep,  it  secretes  very  copiously. 

The  tears  are  carried  away  through  a  little 
opening,  which  may  be  seen  at  the  inner  corner 
of  the  lower  eyelid.  This  is  the  orifice,  or  mouth, 
of  a  duct  leading  into  the  nose,  and  hence  called 
the  nasal  duct. 

The  secretions  are  very  much  under  the  influ- 
ence of  our  feelings  :  thus,  when  we  are  in  sor- 
row, we  shed  tears  almost  in  spite  of  ourselves  ; 
and  if  we  suffer  severe  pain,  the  same  thing  occurs 
unless  we  are  very  determined. 


Questions. 
• 

What  do  nerves  look  like  t 

With  what  parts  are  they  all  connected  ? 

How  is  it  that  they  become  smaller  and  smaller  1 

How  do  they  terminate  1 

By  what  means  do  we  know  that  our  bodies  are  full  of 
nerves  1 

What  is  it  that  nerves  enable  us  to  do  ? 

What  happens  if  the  nerves  of  the  tongue  or  finger  are 
divided  ? 

Where  may  glands  be  felt  at  times  ? 

What  is  meant  by  a  secretion,  and  from  what  is  it  pre- 
pared ] 

Mention  one  or  two  secretions. 

How  are  the  tears  carried  away  from  the  eye  ? 

Are  the  secretions  much  under  the  influence  of  our  feelings  ? 


316  SKIN,  HAIR,  NAILS. 

LESSON  VII. 

THE    SKIN HAIR NAILS. 

THE  whole  of  our  body  is  covered  by  skin. 
The  structure  of  the  skin  is  very  curious,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  look  at  it  without  being  reminded  of 
the  care  which  our  Creator  has  bestowed  upon  us. 

The  skin  consists  of  three  layers,  or  coats.  The 
outside  one  is  called  the  epidermis,  or  scarf  skin, 
and  is  very  elastic  or  stretching.  It  is  pierced 
with  innumerable  holes,  through  which  the  hair 
passes,  and  the  perspiration  exudes.  It  is,  more- 
over, quite  insensible,  and  appears  to  have  no  blood 
vessels.  With  great  care,  we  may  thrust  a  needle 
through  it,  and  neither  see  blood,  nor  feel  pain  :  and 
when  we  are  scalded  or  burnt,  or  have  a  blister 
applied  to  us,  it  is  seen  raised  in  the  form  of  a  blad- 
der. It  is  also  half-transparent,  and  shows  the 
colour  of  the  parts  beneath  it. 

The  epidermis  is  stretched  over  some  of  our 
limbs  in  little  folds.  Look  at  the  joints  of  your 
fingers.  Bend  them,  and  observe  how  these  folds 
disappear.  Besides  where  we  cannot  see  any  folds, 
the  epidermis  is  capable  of  great  extension.  There 
is  a  disease  called  emphysema,  and  another, 
dropsy,  in  which  it  is  stretched  out  amazingly,  yet 
when  the  cause  is  removed,  it  recovers  its  tone, 
and,  after  a  time,  becomes  smooth  as  before,  though 
at  first  it  is  a  good  deal  wrinkled. 

Under  the  epidermis,  lies  a  second  coat.     This 


SKIN,  HAIR,  NAILS.  217 

is  very  soft,  and  it  seems  to  be  rather  a  layer  of 
mucus,  or  slime,  than  a  distinct  lining,  and,  for 
this  reason,  it  is  named  the  rete  mucosum,  or 
mucous  coat. 

It  is  this  which  gives  colour  to  the  skin,  as  the 
scarf  skin  itself  is  colourless  in  all  nations.  But 
very  little  of  it  is  found  beneath  our  own  skins, 
our  colour  being  chiefly  owing  to  the  parts  below. 
In  the  Negro,  it  is  black  and  plentiful  ;  in  the  na- 
tive American, copper  coloured;  and  in  the  Malays, 
olive. 

The  next  layer  is  the  true  skin,  or  corium. 
This  is  much  thicker  than  the  others,  and  quite 
spongy.  It  is  made  up  of  a  network  of  arteries, 
veins,  nerves,  and  secretory  vessels. 

This  is  the  most  sensible  part  of  our  bodies,  and 
we  could  not  bear  to  be  touched,  were  it  not  pro- 
tected, and  its  sensibility  blunted,  by  the  epider- 
mis, or  scarf  skin.  When  a  piece  of  this  last  is 
removed  and  the  corium  exposed,  the  vessels  im- 
mediately secrete  a  thickish  fluid,  called  lymph  ; 
into  these  new  vessels  shoot,  and,  in  the  course  of 
a  few  days,  it  is  changed  into  proper  skin. 

The  surface  of  our  bodies  is,  in  a  great  measure, 
covered  with  hair.  In  general,  these  hairs  are 
very  delicate  and  small,  and  do  not  take  away 
from  the  smoothness  of  the  skin.  The  head,  how- 
ever, is  thickly  clothed,  and  there  the  hair  grows 
long. 

Hair  was  given  to  mankind  to  serve,  in  some 
sort,  as  a  protection  against  the  weather. 
T 


218  SKIN,  HAIR,  NAILS. 

Every  hair  is  a  hard  and  elastic  tube,  growing 
from  an  oval  bulb  beneath  the  true  skin. 

The  backs  of  the  ends  of  our  fingers  and  toes 
are  covered  and  supported  by  nails.  These  are 
smooth,  horny  in  their  texture,  and  have  no  feel- 
ing. They  are  formed  from  a  very  tender  part, 
called  the  root.  The  mode  in  which  the  skin  is 
folded  under  and  around  the  nails  is  exceeding 
beautiful.  L: 

Nails  are  highly  useful  to  us  in  touching  and 
grasping  bodies,  and  in  walking,  as  they  afford  & 
firm  support  to  the  soft  fleshy  extremities. 


Questions. 

What  is  the  outside  part  of  the  skin  called  ? 

Is  this  sensible  1 

What  is  the  blister  we  see  when  we  are  scalded  or  burnt  ? 

Why  do  we  see  the  colour  of  the  parts  below  the  epider- 
mis? 

What  is  the  colour  of  our  bodies  owing  to  ] 

In  what  people  does  the  colouring  matter  of  the  skin  exist 
abundantly  ? 

Of  what  is  the  true  skin  composed  1 

What  is  the  most  sensible  part  of  our  bodies  1 

What  purpose  does  hair  serve  1 

Is  the  hair  a  solid  body  1 

From  what  do  nails  grow  ? 

In  what  way  are  they  useful  to  us  ? 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.  219 

LESSON  VIIL 

THE  ORGANS  OF  DIGESTION. 

As  there  is  a  constant  waste  going  on  in  our 
bodies,  it  is  needful  that  it  should  be  regularly  sup- 
plied with  nourishment.  For  this  purpose,  we  take 
food,  and  have  a  stomach  and  various  other  parts, 
fitted  for  changing  it  into  a  proper  form  for  repair- 
ing our  system. 

The  changes  which  our  food  undergoes  to  pre- 
pare it,  constitute  what  is  called  digestion;  and  the 
actual  laying  down  of  new  matter  by  the  different 
vessels  is  called  the  process  of  nutrition. 

The  stomach  is  a  hollow  bag,  placed  just  below 
the  breast  bone,  and  lying  partly  across  the  body. 
It  is  large  enough  in  a  grown  man  to  hold  about 
three  pints  of  fluid,  and  is  joined  to  the  mouth  by 
a  tube,  or  passage,  called  the  gullet.  The  open- 
ing into  this  is  seen  lying  quite  at  the  back  of  the 
throat,  and  it  receives  the  food  after  it  has  been 
crushed  by  the  teeth,  or  masticated,  and  mixed 
with  saliva.  In  this  pulpy  state  it  is  passed  into 
the  stomach  by  the  gullet  pressing  it  downwards. 

After  the  food  has  remained  in  the  stomach  for 
a  time,  it  begins  to  contract  and  pushes  it  through 
an  opening  into  the  intestines. 

The  intestines  form  one  continued  canal,  or 
tube,  about  five  or  six  yards  long,  lying  in  a  won- 
derfully small  space,  and  most  curiously  folded  one 
upon  another. 


t20  'DIGESTIVE  OR&ANS. 

They  have  several  coats  or  linings,  the  inner  one 
being  red,  full  of  plaits,  and  covered  with  little 
eminences,  termed  villi,  which  give  it  a  velvety 
appearance.  These  villi  are  the  beginnings  of  the 
vessels  which  convey  away  the  nourishing  juice. 

The  outer  coat  of  the  intestines  is  smooth  and 
shining,  and  always  moistened  by  a  watery  fluid 
to  keep  it  soft,  and  to  allow  the  parts  to  move 
easily  over  each  other. 

Between  these  two  coats  is  another,  called  the 
muscular  coat.  It  is  this  which  enables  the  intes- 
tines to  push  forward  their  contents,  and  which 
gives  to  them  a  constant  motion,  something  like 
that  of  a  worm  when  crawling,  and  hence  called, 
vermicular,  or  peristaltic. 

Different  names  have  been  given  by  anatomists 
to  different  parts  of  the  intestines,  and  the  whole 
are  divided  into  the  large  and  the  small.  The 
small  intestines  receive  the  food  from  the  stomach, 
and  the  useless  parts  are  allowed  to  collect  in  the 
large  ones,  till  it  is  proper  and  needful  that  it  be 
discharged. 

The  liver  is  another  part  closely  connected  with 
the  stomach.  It  is  a  large,  dark-looking  glandular 
body,  filled  with  veins,  and  makes  a  peculiar  fluid, 
which  is  of  a  yellowish  colour,  and  very  bitter. 
This  is  bile.  This  fluid  is  collected  in  a  little 
bladder  seated  under  the  liver,  and  called  the  gall 
bladder.  From  this  it  is  carried  by  a  duct  into 
the  upper  part  of  the  small  intestines,  whfcre  it  is 
mixed  with  the  food. 


BILE.  221 

The  importance  of  bile  may  be  judged  of  from 
the  fact  that  our  food  never  digests  well  when  it  is 
too  small  in  quantity,  or  its  properties  are  changed 
by  disease.  In  jaundice,  the  bile,  in  place  of  being 
poured  into  the  intestines,  is  carried  into  the  blood, 
and  tinges  the  whole  body  with  a  yellowish  hue. 

There  are  several  other  glands  in  union  with  the 
stomach  and  intestines.  These  secrete  various 
fluids,  which  serve  some  useful  purpose  in  diges~ 
tion. 


Questions. 

Why  is  it  needful  that  we  should  take  food  ? 

What  is  the  stomach,  and  where  is  it  placed  ? 

How  do  you  call  the  passage  connecting  the  stomach  with 
the  mouth  ? 

What  receive  the  food  from  the  stomach? 

Do  the  intestines  form  one  continuous  canal  ? 

What  is  the  appearance  of  the  internal  coat  of  the  intes- 
tines ? 

To  what  do  they  owe  their  peristaltic  motion?  what  is  the 
use  of  this  ? 

How  are  they  divided  ? 

What  organ  secretes  the  bile  ? 

What  becomes  of  it  ? 

Is  it  an  important  agent  in  digestion  1 

To  what  is  the  yellow  colour  of  the  body  owing  in  jaun- 
dice? 


THE   TEETH. 


LESSON  IX. 

THE  TEETH CONVERSION   OF   FOOD  INTO  BLOOD—  • 

DIGESTION. 

No  part  of  our  bodies  Is  more  remarkable  than 
the  teeth  ;  and  none  can  more  clearly  show  us  how 
much  wisdom  and  design  have  been  bestowed  upon 
our  form  by  the  Divine  Architect  of  the  universe. 

If  you  look  into  the  mouth  of  a  very  young 
child,  you  see  no  teeth.  The  gums  are  low  and 
rounded,  and  show  no  marks  of  the  great  change 
that  a  few  months  will  produce  in  them.  There 
are,  however,  buried  beneath  them,  two  or  more 
complete  sets  of  teeth,  each  tooth  shut  up  in  a 
little  bag,  or  capsule,  and  separate  from  the  rest. 

Now  why  is  it  that  infants  are  without  teeth? 
Because  at  this  period  of  our  lives  we  live  upon 
milk  and  other  soft  diet,  and  because  our  digestive 
organs  are  not  fitted  to  receive  food  so  solid  as  to 
require  chewing.  After  a  time,  as  we  become 
stronger,  and  require  different  food,  the  teeth  ap- 
pear in  regular  order ;  first  the  front  teeth,  then 
the  side  teeth,  and  lastly  the  double  teeth. 

The  set  of  teeth  which  first  appears,  occupies 
only  part  of  the  jaw,  and  is  generally  completed 
about  the  iiJant's  second  or  third  year.  These 
teeth  are  called  the  milk-teeth,  and  are  shed,  with 
the  exception  of  six  or  eight,  in  the  course  of  three 
or  four  years.  Our  bodies  are  now  become  stronger, 


CONVERSION    OF    FOOD.  223 

and  our  mouths  wider,  and  for  this  change  God  has 
provided. 

At  this  time,  the  second,  or  permanent,  set  of 
teeth  pushes  forwards,  and  gradually  displaces,  the 
others.  This  set,  when  complete,  consists  of 
thirty-two  teeth,  sixteen  in  each  jaw;  but  they 
seldom  all  appear  till  we  are  fourteen  or  fifteen 
years  of  age,  as  there  is  not  room  for  them  before 
we  have  reached  nearly  our  full  growth. 

That  part  of  a  tooth  which  stands  up  above  the 
gum  is  called  the  crown,  and  is  covered  by  a  very 
hard  ivory-like  substance,  termed  enamel.  The 
roots  of  the  single  teeth,  and  the  fangs  of  the  dou- 
ble ones  are  hollow,  and  contain  a  nerve,  artery, 
and  vein.  The  nerve,  when  exposed  or  inflamed, 
gives  rise  to  that  distressing  pain,  called  tooth- 
ach. 

The  food  which  we  eat  to  supply  the  waste  in 
our  bodies,  is  first  submitted  to  the  action  of  the 
teeth.  These,  by  their  hardness  and  sharpness, 
break  it  into  small  fragments,  whilst  the  glands 
give  out  saliva  in  abundance. 

By  these  means  the  food  is  made  into  a  soft  pulp, 
and  in  this  state  it  passes  into  the  stomach.  When 
it  is  received  there,  the  vessels  of  that  part  throw 
out  a  fluid  called  the  gastric  juice.  This  is  a  very 
powerful  solvent,  and  by  mixing  with  the  food, 
brings  it  into  a  half  fluid  state,  when  it  is  called 
chyme,  and  is  of  a  grayish  colour. 

This  change  being  finished,  the  lower  opening 
of  the  stomach,  which  had  remained  fast  closed, 


224  DIGESTION. 

whilst  it  was  going  on,  opens  and  permits  the 
chyme  to  pass  into  the  small  intestines.  Here  it 
is  made  still  more  fluid,  by  the  addition  of  various 
juices,  and  becomes  of  a  milky  whiteness,  and  now 
it  is  called  chyle.  In  this  state  it  meets  with  the 
bile,  which  is  supposed  to  have  the  property  of 
separating  the  nutritious  from  the  useless  parts. 

The  reader  has  learnt  that  the  inner  surface  of 
the  small  intestines  is  lined  by  villi,  which  are 
the  mouths  of  lacteals.  These  are  now  actively 
at  work,  taking  up  the  milky  part  of  the  chyle, 
and  carrying  it  to  a  number  of  glands,  where  it 
undergoes  some  farther  change. 

From  these  it  is  carried  forwards,  till  all  the 
lacteals  are  at  last  collected  into  one  large  duct, 
which  conveys  the  stream  of  chyle,  now  fitted  for 
mixing  with  the  blood,  along  the  spine,  up  as  high 
as  the  neck ;  here  it  opens  into  one  of  the  great 
veins,  and  after  passing  through  the  heart  and 
lungs,  becomes  perfectly  mixed,  and  ready  for 
nutrition. 

These  are  the  changes  undergone  by  our  food 
before  it  becomes  blood,  and  they  come  under  the 
general  term,  digestion. 


Questions. 

What  is  there  concealed  in  the  gums  of  infants  ? 

Is  each  tooth  separate,  and  in  what  is  it  enclosed  ? 

Why  have  very  young  children  no  teeth  ? 

In  what  order  do  the  teeth  appear  1 

What  is  the  first  set  called,  and  how  long  does  i 


THE    HEART.  225 

How  many  teeth  does  the  permanent  set  contain1? 

At  about  what  age  are  these  commonly  completed  1 

What  is  contained  in  each  tooth  1 

What  qualities  has  the  gastric  juice  secreted  by  the  sto- 
mach1? 

Can  you  tell  the  name  of  the  food  when  mixed  with  this 
juice  ? 

How  is  the  food  named  in  the  small  intestines,  and  what  ia 
it  like? 

What  order  of  vessels  then  take  it  up  1 

Into  what  do  these  convey  it  ? 


LESSON  X. 

THE    HEART CIRCULATION   OP    THE    BLOOD 

THE    BLOOD. 

THE  heart  is  a  wonderful  piece  of  machinery. 
At  one  moment  it  shuts  itself  and  forces  a  stream 
of  blood  through  all  parts  of  our  bodies,  by  means 
of  the  arteries ;  the  next  it  opens  and  receives  it 
back  again  from  the  veins,  and  these  actions  con- 
tinue, night  and  day,  throughout  our  lives. 

If  any  thing  were  to  interfere  with  this  we 
should  die  immediately. 

The  heart  is  a  hollow  body,  placed  in  the  left 
side  of  the  chest.  Its  broad  end,  or  base,  is  turned 
upwards,  and  its  narrow  end,  or  apex,  a  little  cross- 
wise and  downwards.  It  is  enclosed  in  a  loose 
bag  or  purse,  in  which  its  apex  moves  freely, 
striking  against  the  side  every  time  it  contracts. 


£26  CIRCULATION    OF    THE    BLOOfi. 

It  is  this  which  we  feel  when  we  place  our  hand 
over  the  fifth  and  sixth  ribs. 

The  heart  is  divided  into  four  cavities,  or  cham- 
bers, which  have  thick  walls  of  muscle,  and  it  is 
into  these  chambers  that  the  blood  is  received,  and 
by  these  muscles  that  it  is  forcibly  pushed  out. 
Besides  these,  it  has  several  very  curious  valves  to 
keep  the  blood  flowing  in  its  proper  directions. 
The  heart  may  be  called  double,  one  part  being 
employed  in  forcing  the  blood  through  the  body 
at  large,  and  another  in  forcing  it  through  the 
lungs. 

We  have  mentioned  how  our  food  is  changed 
into  blood ;  let  us  now  see  in  what  way  the  blood 
is  passed  to  all  parts  of  the  system,  for  the  purpose 
of  nourishing  them,  and  supplying  the  waste. 

The  heart  is  the  great  centre  of  the  circulation, 
and  is  placed  between  the  two  sets  of  blood  vessels 
already  described ;  namely,  the  arteries  and  veins. 
From  these  last,  one  of  the  chambers  of  the  heart 
is  filled  with  dark  or  venous  blood,  no  longer  fitted 
to  serve  the  wants  of  the  system,  as  it  is  mixed 
with  the  chyle  and  other  matters.  This  chamber 
contracts,  and  forces  it  into  a  second  and  stronger 
one,  which,  in  its  turn,  drives  it  through  the  lungs. 

.Here  it  gives  off  its  impurities,  and  becomes  a 
bright  red,  or  arterial  blood.  From  hence  it 
flows  back  into  a  third  chamber,  and  from  this  into 
the  fourth,  which  is  the  most  powerful  of  them  all, 
and  from  which  the  great  artery  arises.  Into  this 


THE    BLOOD.  227 

it  is  thrown  with  great  force,  and  urged  on  into  the 
farthest  vessels. 

These  are  the  feeders  of  the  body,  and  when 
they  have  supplied  what  is  needful,  they  end  in 
minute  veins,  by  which  the  blood  is  again  brought 
to  the  heart,  which  opens  to  receive  it. 

This  is  the  round  of  the  circulation,  which  is 
continued  without  stop  or  rest,  and  without  any 
wish  or  action  of  our  own,  our  all-wise  Maker 
having  placed  it  out  of  our  control.  This  alternate 
shutting  and  opening  of  our  hearts  produces  that 
motion  in  our  arteries  called  the  pulse. 

In  childhood  the  heart  beats  upwards  of  a  hun- 
dred times  in  a  minute ;  in  youth,  about  eighty, 
and  in  manhood,  from  sixty  to  seventy.  In 
fevers  and  some  other  diseases,  it  also  beats  very 
quickly.  There  is  no  pulsation  in  veins. 

The  blood  from  which  all  our  solid  and  fluid 
parts  are  formed,  when  it  is  first  drawn  from  a 
vein  or  artery,  looks  like  a  simple  liquid.  After 
it  has  stood,  however,  for  a  little  while,  it  coagu- 
lates, as  it  is  termed,  and  separates  into  three  very 
distinct  parts.  When  we  look  at  it,  we  see  a  red 
mass  swimming  in  a  straw  coloured  liquid.  This 
liquid  is  slightly  viscid  and  salt  to  the  taste,  and  is 
called  serum.  The  mass  is  made  up  of  two  bodies, 
one  a  fine  thready  matter,  which  is  named  fibrin, 
and  the  other  of  red  globules,  or  little  round  bo- 
dies. The  fibrin,  being  heavier  than  the  serum, 
falls  to  the  bottom'  as  it  cools,  and  carries  with  it 
the  globules. 


THE    LUNGS. 

Questions. 

Is  the  constant  action  of  the  heart  necessary  to  our  exist- 
ence1? 

What  is  the  heart,  and  where  is  it  placed  1 

What  part  of  the  heart  is  it  we  feel  when  it  contracts  1 

How  many  cavities  are  there  in  it  1 

By  what  means  is  the  hlood  expelled  from  it  1 

Is  our  heart  single  or  double  ? 

For  what  purpose  is  the  blood  circulated  through  our  bo- 
dies 1 

Try  to  describe  the  course  of  the  circulation. 

What  produces  the  pulse,  and  how  often  does  this  beat  at 
different  ages  1 

Do  the  veins  pulsate  1 

What  change  does  blood  undergo  when  taken  from  the 
body? 

Into  how  many  parts  does  it  divide  itself? 

Can  you  name  these  ? 


LESSON  XL 

THE    LUNGS    AND     THEIR    APPENDAGES 

-;  RESPIRATION. 

ONE  of  the  most  important  actions  of  our  system 
is  breathing.  This  is  so  essential  to  life,  that  if  it 
be  interrupted  for  a  very  short  space  of  time,  we 
die  from  suffocation.  Breathing  consists  of  two 
actions :  inspiration,  or  drawing  in  the  air ;  and 
expiration,  or  forcing  out  the  air. 

The  lungs  are  soft,  spongy  bodies,  full  of  very 
small  hollows,  called  air-cells.  The  thorax,  or 


RESPIRATION.  229 

cavity  of  the  chest,  in  which  the  lungs  are  con- 
tained, is  covered  by  the  ribs  and  breast-bone,  and 
is  divided  by  a  broad  muscle  from  the  abdomen. 
This  muscle,  which  is  named  the  diaphragm,  is 
the  great  agent  in  breathing.  There  are  also  seve- 
ral other  muscles  fixed  to  the  ribs  and  other  parts 
which  assist  it.  The  lungs  themselves  are  in  two 
divisions,  lying  one  on  each  side  of  the  chest,  with 
the  heart  between  them.  These  divisions  are 
termed  the  right  and  left  lobes. 

When  we  feel  the  front  of  our  necks,  we  find  a 
hard  body.  This  is  a  tube,  and  composed  of  carti- 
laginous, or  gristly  rings,  so  that  it  is  always  kept 
open,  and  is  named  the  trachea,  or  windpipe.  It 
is  through  this  that  the  air  is  conveyed  to  and 
from  the  lungs. 

The  windpipe  opens  at  the  back  of  the  mouth, 
before  the  entrance  into  the  gullet,  so  that  all  our 
food  has  to  pass  over  it.  How  does  it  happen  that 
none  of  the  food  gets  into  it?  Now  and  then,  in- 
deed, this  does  occur,  and  is  followed  by  the  most 
serious  consequences,  and  often  by  death. 

When  we  are  eating  fast  or  carelessly,  a  crumb 
will  sometimes  slip  into  what  we  familiarly  call 
the  wrong  passage,  that  is,  it  gets  into  the  wind- 
pipe. To  prevent  this  constantly  happening,  it  is 
protected  in  a  very  curious  way.  The  opening  into 
it  is  a  narrow  slit,  called  the  rima;  the  part  itself 
is  named  the  glottis ;  and  over  the  slit  is  fixed  a 
moveable  little  body,  or  valve,  called  the  epi- 
glottis; and  this  is  so  arranged,  that  whenever  we 
U 


230  THE    LUNGS'. 

are  about  to  swallow,  the  motion  of  the  tongue 
pulls  down  this  covering  and  closes  up  the  open- 
ing with  the  utmost  nicety. 

How  wonderful  and  beautiful  this  is,  as  we  are 
not  sensible  of  it;  and  if  before  swallowing  we  had 
always  to  think  and  exercise  our  will  in  shutting 
this  aperture,  how  different  would  be  the  process 
of  eating,  and  how  frequently  must  accidents  hap- 
pen from  our  forgetfulness ! 

Why  is  it  that  breathing  is  so  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  our  life  ?  For  this  reason, — that  the  blood, 
in  its  passage  through  the  body,  is  changed,  be- 
comes dark  coloured,  and  is  no  longer  fit  to  sup- 
port life.  In  this  state  it  reaches  the  heart,  and 
before  it  is  sent  back  into  the  arteries,  it  is  passed 
through  the  lungs.  Here  it  is  purified  by  an  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  through  the  thin  linings  of  the 
air-cells,  with  which  the  lungs  are  quite  filled,  and 
all  of  which  communicate  with  each  other,  and 
with  the  windpipe.  After  this  exposure,  the  blood 
becomes  of  a  bright  red  colour,  is  taken  back  to 
the  heart,  and  thrown  into  the  body  for  its  support. 

The  blood  being  thus  changed,  let  us  see  what 
change  has  been  undergone  by  the  air  in  our 
lungs.  If  you  put  a  piece  of  quill  into  the  nozle 
of  a  pair  of  bellows,  and  blow  into  a  cup  of  lime 
water,  you  will  find  no  change  in  its  appearance. 
You  blow  into  it  just  the  same  kind  of  air  which 
you  draw  into  your  lungs.  But  now  put  the  quill 
into  your  mouth,  and  blow  into  the  lime  water, 
and  you  will  see  that  it  becomes  turbid  and  white, 


RESPIRATION.  231 

and  if  allowed  to  stand,  a  fine  powder  falls  to  the 
bottom. 

The  air  which  you  have  blown  into  the  water 
has  passed  through  your  lungs,  and  during  its  pro- 
gress has  lost  a  part  of  its  oxygen,  and  in  its  place 
we  find  fixed  air,  or  carbonic  acid.  It  is  this  which 
causes  the  lime  water  to  become  white,  by  uniting 
with  it. 

This  fixed  air  is  very  unwholesome  ; — animals 
soon  die  if  confined  in  it,  and  this  is  the  reason 
why  close  and  crowded  rooms  are  so  unhealthy,  as 
the  air  becomes  very  impure,  and  unfit  for  breath- 
ing. We  soon  become  oppressed  and  languid  in 
these  situations,  and  whenever  we  feel  these  symp- 
toms, we  should  have  the  room  ventilated,  or  re- 
move to  more  open  places, 


Questions. 

What  happens  if  our  breathing  is  interrupted  ? 

Of  what  do  the  lungs  consist  1 

What  is  the  cavity  called  in  which  they  are  placed  ? 

Can  you  tell  which  is  the  most  important  muscle  in  breath- 
ing? 

What  are  the  divisions  of  the  lungs  called  ? 

How  is  the  windpipe  or  trachea  kept  open  ? 

Through  what  is  the  air  conveyed  to  the  lungs  1 

Endeavour  to  describe  the  way  in  which  the  opening  into 
the  windpipe  is  protected. 

How  is  the  blood  purified  in  the  lungs,  and  what  colour 
does  it  become  1 

Is  the  air  we  have  breathed  changed  1 

What  simple  experiment  shows  the  nature  of  this  change  ? 

What  kind  of  air  is  formed  in  the  lungs  ? 

Is  this  injurious  to  life  ? 


£32  THE    VOICE. 


LESSON  XII. 

THE  ORGANS   OP  VOICE WARMTH   OF  THE   HUMAN 

BODY. 

THE  organs  of  voice  are  in  close  union  with, 
and,  indeed,  form  part  of,  the  parts  used  for  breath- 
ing. They  are  placed  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
windpipe,  so  that  the  current  of  air  necessary  to 
respiration  passes  through  them. 

If  you  feel  with  your  fingers  just  below  the 
chin,  you  find  the  thyroid  cartilage,  a  prominence 
which  has  a  somewhat  triangular  shape  ;  and,  in 
common  language,  is  not  unfrequently  called 
Adam's  apple. 

This  projection  is  composed  of  several  pieces  of 
hard  substance,  very  curiously  contrived  and  put 
together,  and  forming  a  hollow  body  which  en- 
closes the  parts  producing  sound.  These  are  four 
chords,  called  the  cordze  vocales,  which  pass  from 
side  to  side  like  strings,  and  it  is  the  rush  of  air 
over  these  that  gives  rise  to  our  voice.  There  are 
several  muscles  connected  with  these  cords,  which 
can  tighten  or  relax  them,  and  thus  produce  differ- 
ent tones. 

The  tongue,  the  lips,  the  cheeks,  and  the  palate 
assist  in  modulating  or  shaping  the  sounds  which 
proceed  from  the  parts  above  named.  By  these 
means  we  articulate,  or  speak,  that  is,  express 
ourselves  in  words  or  language.  Reason,  which 


ANIMAL    HEAT.  233 

our  bountiful  Maker  has  given  to  us,  enables  us 
to  clothe  all  our  ideas  and  varieties  of  thought  and 
feelings  in  equally  varied  tones  and  language. 
Other  animals  have  voice  also,  but  the  want  of  rea- 
son confines  its  use  to  the  expression  of  their  sim- 
plest wants. 

During  a  severe  cold  when  the  vocal  organs  are 
inflamed  and  thickened,  our  voice  is  hoarse  and 
indistinct ;  and  if  the  parts  are  so  much  swollen  as 
to  prevent  their  usual  action,  our  voice  is  lost,  and 
we  speak  in  a  whisper. 

The  warmth  of  our  bodies  is  a  very  wonderful 
circumstance.  It  is  called  animal  heat,  and  de- 
pends on  respiration.  By  this  heat,  we  are  pre- 
served at  nearly  the  same  temperature,  whatever 
the  nature  of  the  climate  may  be  around  us.  This 
is  confined  to  the  animal  kingdom. 

If  we  examine  a  mineral  or  a  vegetable,  we  shall 
always  find  it  just  of  the  same  heat  as  the  air, 
whilst  our  own  body  never  varies  more  than  three 
or  four  degrees  from  96°  of  the  thermometer  ;  and 
this,  whether  we  are  surrounded  by  an  atmosphere 
many  degrees  below  the  freezing  point,  or  by  one 
nearly  as  hot  as  boiling  water. 

Now  this  is  a  very  remarkable  fact,  and  shows 
how  wonderfully  we  are  constituted,  thus  to  resist 
the  influence  of  changes  from  heat  to  cold  which 
must  have  proved  fatal  to  us,  or  confined  us  to  a 
particular  climate  like  many  animals,  or  forced  us 
to  migrate  at  certain  seasons.  It  is  this,  together 
with  the  power  of  accommodating  ourselves  by 


234  THE    BRAIN. 

clothing  of  different  kinds,  and  of  living  upon  all 
kinds  of  food,  that  enables  man  to  dwell  in  every 
part  of  the  world. 


Questions. 

In  what  place  are  the  organs  of  voice  situated  ? 

What  produces  sound  ? 

How  are  different  tones  produced? 

What  parts  modulate  the  sound,  and  enable  us  to  speak1? 

Have  other  animals  voice  1 

Is  the  voice  of  animals  more  limited  than  our  own  7 

What  happens  to  the  voice  when  we  labour  under  a  cold  ? 

How  does  our  body  differ  from  vegetables  and  minerals  as 
to  warmth  ? 

Does  the  heat  of  our  body  vary  much  under  different 
temperatures  ? 

About  what  degree  of  the  thermometer  is  it  found  ? 

What  advantages  do  we  derive  from  this  equal  temperature 
in  all  situations  ? 


LESSON  XIII. 

THE  BRAIN THE  SPINAL  MARROW ORIGIN  OP 

NERVES SUPERIORITY  OF  MAN. 

ALMIGHTY  GOD,  in  making  our  bodies,  has  care- 
fully protected  those  parts  which  are  most  impor- 
tant to  our  well  being.  Thus  the  heart  and  the 
lungs  are  covered  and  shielded  by  the  ribs,  breast- 
bone, and  spine  ;  and  the  stomach  is  placed  amidst 
soft  and  yielding  parts,  that  it  may  give  way  to 
blows  or  fulness.  It  is,  however,  in  those  organs 


THE    BRAIN.  235 

which  are  the  seat  of  mind,  and  which  make  us 
intelligent  and  sentient  creatures,  that  wisdom  and 
care  are  most  conspicuous. 

The  brain  is  at  once  the  most  important  and 
most  delicate  portion  of  our  system  ;  and  to  guard 
it  from  injury,  it  is  shut  up  in  a  bony  case  consist- 
ing of  many  pieces  curiously  fastened  together, 
and  strengthened  by  ridges  of  bone. 

The  skull  in  which  it  is  contained,  is  not  only 
thus  fortified,  but  its  cavity  is  divided  by  strong 
webs,  on  which  the  different  parts  of  the  brain  are 
supported.  No  accident  of  any  ordinary  kind  can 
reach  it,  and  nothing  but  falls  from  considerable 
heights,  or  heavy  blows  with  some  hard  instru- 
ment, can  break  through  its  walls.  Were  it  other- 
wise, we  should  be  liable  to  injuries  from  numerous 
causes,  which  would  either  destroy  us,  or  make  us 
miserable  objects  for  the  whole  of  our  lives. 

The  substance  of  the  brain  is  soft  and  white,  and 
is  arranged  in  the  most  curious  manner.  It  is 
divided  into  two  portions  :  one  occupying  the  front 
and  upper  part  of  the  head, and  called  the  cerebrum, 
or  proper  brain;  and  the  other  the  lower  and  back 
part,  and  called  the  little  brain. 

It  is  more  copiously  supplied  with  blood  than 
any  other  part  of  our  body,  for  though  it  seldom 
weighs  more  than  three  pounds,  one  sixth  of  all 
the  blood  passes  through  it.  From  its  lower  sur- 
face are  given  off  in  regular  pairs  those  white  cords 
called  nerves,  which  we  have  seen  running  in  all 
directions  through  the  body. 


236  SPINAL    MARROW. 

The  spinal  marrow  is  a  continuation  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  brain  which  proceeds  down  the  back- 
bone. This  forms  a  hollow  column,  made  up  of 
twenty-four  separate  bones,  which  are  strongly 
bound  together  by  cartilage,  ligaments,  and  mus- 
cles, within  which  the  spinal  marrow  is  safely 
lodged.  As  it  proceeds  downwards,  a  pair  of 
nerves  arises  at  every  bone,  one  of  them  going  to 
the  right,  and  one  to  the  left.  These  supply  the 
various  parts  of  the  body  as  they  branch  and  ramify 
in  every  way. 

When  any  portion  of  the  brain,  or  spinal  mar- 
row, is  pressed  upon  or  injured,  the  function  or 
office  of  the  nerves  which  proceed  from  it  is  de- 
stroyed, and  the  parts  they  supply  lose  motion  and 
feeling.  It  is  to  these  organs,  therefore,  that  we 
owe  all  our  sensations  or  feelings. 

The  brain  is  also  the  seat  of  the  mind,  or  of  our 
intellectual  faculties ;  and  if  it  be  oppressed  or 
diseased,  we  lose  our  consciousness,  or  sense  of 
being.  Were  it  not  for  this  organ,  we  should 
not  be  sensible  of  any  of  the  beauties  of  nature ; 
and  the  whole  world  would  be  a  blank.  We 
should  know  nothing  of  the  light  of  day,  the 
warmth  of  the  sun,  the  beauty  of  the  night  ;  nor 
would  any  of  the  sweet  sounds  which  now  delight 
us  ever  meet  the  ear. 

Many  parts  of  the  animal  creation  appear  to  be 
destitute  of  brain,  and  in  none  is  the  brain  so  per- 
fectly made  as  in  mankind.  Our  sphere  of  enjoy- 
ment is  therefore  much  greater  than  that  enjoyed 


SUPE11IORITV    Otf    MAN.  231 

by  any  other  animal.  Let  us  be  grateful  to  our 
Creator,  who  has  thus  placed  us  the  highest  of  his 
creatures, — who  has  given  us  power  to  know  and 
to  admire  the  ;  wonderful  works'  of  his  hands;  and 
let  us  apply  all  our  varied  endowments  to  their 
right  purposes,  namely,  to  be  good  and  useful  mem- 
bers of  society,  and  to  love  God  '  with  all  our  soul 
and  with  all  our  strength/ 


Questions. 

"What  is  remarkable  about  our  most  important  organs  1 

How  is  the  brain  protected  from  injury  ? 

What  appearance  has  the  substance  of  the  brain  ? 

What  weight  does  it  seldom  exceed  ? 

Is  there  any  thing  remarkable  as  to  its  circulation? 

In  what  way  do  the  nerves  come  from  the  brain? 

What  is  the  spinal  marrow  ? 

How  is  it  defended  ? 

In  what  way  does  it  give  off  nerves  ? 

What  happens  when  a  portion  of  brain  or  spinal  marrow  is 
injured? 

Are  our  mental  faculties  injured  by  injuries  of  the  brain? 

What  important  services  then  do  we  derive  from  this 
organ  ? 

Has  any  other  animal  a  brain  as  perfect  as  man? 

What  is  the  lesson  to  b<*.  gathered  from  these  considera- 
tions ? 


238  THE    SENSES. 


LESSON  XIV. 

THE  SENSES THE  ORGANS  OF  THE  SENSES 

TOUCH. 

IT  is  by  means  of  our  senses  that  we  become 
acquainted  with  the  qualities  of  the  objects  which 
surround  us. 

The  senses  are  five  in  number  :  namely.  Sight 
— Smell — Taste — Touch — and  Hearing  ;  each  of 
which  conveys  feelings  of  a  different  kind  to  the 
brain. 

These  different  impressions  assist  us  in  forming 
an  accurate  idea  of  the  nature  of  any  body  which 
we  examine.  For  instance  : — we  see  an  apple,  its 
colour  is  green,  and  it  looks  spherical  ;  we  touch 
it,  and  find  that  it  is  a  hard  smooth  body  ;  we 
smell  it,  it  has  a  slight  but  agreeable  odour  ;  we 
taste  it,  and  discover  that  it  has  a  grateful  sub- 
acid  flavour:  thus  four  of  our  senses  are  called  into 
play,  in  order  to  acquire  an  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  properties  of  a  single  body. 

Let  us  consider  a  moment  how  imperfect  our 
knowledge  would  be,  if  any  one  of  these  condi- 
tions were  wanting,  and  how  much  gratification 
would  be  lost  to  us.  It  is,  indeed,  from  the  use 
of  our  senses,  that  we  obtain  most  of  our  pleasur- 
able emotions  ;  the  summer  evening's  ramble,  and 
the  snug  and  comfortable  winter  parlour,  would 
be  deprived  of  their  charms,  were  our  senses  denied 
to  us,  or  imperfect. 


THE    SENSES.  239 

All  the  sights  and  sounds  that  fill  the  world  with 
beauty  and  harmony  are  conveyed  to  us  by  their 
means,  nor  can  we  sufficiently  admire  the  goodness, 
which  has  so  wonderfully  provided  them  as  things 
of  necessity,  and  which  has,  at  the  same  time, 
made  them  the  sources  of  so  much  pleasure  and 
instruction. 

The  organs  of  our  senses  are  supplied  with 
nerves  from  certain  parts  of  the  brain,  which  nerves 
convey  the  feelings  made  upon  them  from  with- 
out, and  are  found  in  no  other  part  of  the  body. 
Thus,  the  olfactory  nerve  serves  the  nose,  and 
gives  it  the  sense  of  smell.  This  sense  is  enjoyed 
by  this  organ  alone  ;  and  if  the  nerve  is  destroyed 
the  sense  is  lost,  none  of  the  other  nerves  being 
able  to  convey  a  similar  impression  ;  and  the  same 
with  the  eye — the  ear — and  the  tongue. 

Four  of  our  senses  are  confined  to  small  spaces, 
but  that  of  touch  or  feeling  is  extended  over  the 
whole  body,  though  it  is  enjoyed  in  much  greater 
perfection  by  some  parts  than  by  others.  The 
hand,  and  especially  the  fingers,  have  a  most  deli- 
cate and  nice  sense  of  touch.  In  these  the  skin 
is  thin,  and  they  are  plentifully  furnished  with 
nerves. 

Habit  will,  however,  render  them  almost  insen- 
sible; blacksmiths  and  others,  who  are  always 
handling  very  hard  substances,  and  lifting  heavy 
hammers,  can  for  a  short  time  even  bear  fire  with- 
out feeling  it.  This  want  of  feeling  is  owning  to 
the  epidermis,  or  scarf  skin,  becoming  thick  and 


240  THE    SENSES. 

horny,  and  thus  preventing  impressions  being 
received  by  the  nerves. 

The  sense  of  touch  is  of  the  greatest  use  to  us, 
and  enables  us  to  know  whether  bodies  are  hard 
or  soft,  solid  or  fluid,  rough  or  smooth,  hot  or  cold. 
As  the  knowledge  it  conveys  is  the  most  accurate, 
it  is  generally  called  in  to  assist  the  other  senses ; 
and  when  we  are  deprived  of  some  of  these,  by  a 
wonderful  dispensation  of  Providence,  it  supplies 
their  place.  Thus,  touch  alone  enables  the  blind 
man  to  learn  many  useful  arts,  which  we  cannot 
attempt  without  using  our  eyes. 

Though  many  parts  of  our  bodies  are  very  sen- 
sible, the  knowledge  they  convey  is  vague  and 
uncertain.  It  is  the  peculiar  province  of  the  hand, 
furnished  as  it  is  with  long  and  slender  fingers,  to 
make  us  sensible  of  the  exact  nature  of  whatever 
comes  near  us. 


Questions. 

What  do  we  learn  by  our  senses  ? 

What  number  of  senses  have  we,  and  what  are  their 
names  1 

Can  you  tell  in  which  way  four  of  them  assist  in  finding 
out  the  qualities  of  an  apple  1 

Are  our  senses  the  means  of  conveying  many  agreeable 
feelings  to  us  ? 

By  what  means  are  impressions  conveyed  to  the  brain  1 

Which  of  our  senses  are  confined  to  small  spaces  in  our 
bodies  ? 

Do  all  parts  of  our  bodies  feel  ? 

In  what  part  is  the  sense  of  touch  most  perfect  * 


THE    TONGUE.  341 

How  is  it  that  the  hands  of  hard-working  people  get  insen- 
sible 1 

What  do  we  distinguish  by  the  sense  of  touch  ? 

Which  of  our  senses  gives  us  the  most  accurate  impres- 
sions ? 


LESSON  XV. 

THE    TONGUE THE    NOSE THE   EAR. 

THE  tongue  is  the  principal  agent  in  tasting, 
It  is  quite  full  of  vessels  and  nerves;  so  much  so. 
that  it  possesses  a  greater  portion  of  vital  energy 
than  any  other  part  of  the  body,  and  its  muscles 
retain  their  motion  for  some  time  after  death.  It 
can  be  moved  about  freely  in  all  directions,  and 
made  broad,  narrow,  or  slightly  hollow,  at  plea- 
sure. 

If  you  pass  the  finger  over  the  surface  of  your 
tongue,  you  find  that  it  is  rough.  This  is  owing 
to  a  multitude  of  little  points,  called  papillae; 
these  are  very  sensitive,  and  erect  themselves 
when  we  are  tasting.  It  is  in  these  papillae  that 
the  nerves  end,  and  it  is  in  them  that  the  sense  of 
taste  immediately  resides. 

The  flavour  of  what  we  eat  is  very  various. 
Some  things  are  agreeable,  others  disagreeable; 
but  taste,  like  the  other  senses,  soon  reconciles 
itself  to  almost  any  thing,  however  unpleasant  it 
may  be  at  first.  The  gustatory,  or  tasting  nerve, 
is  fitted  to  convey  different  flavours  to  the  brain; 
X 


£42  THE    NOSE. 

but  to  do  this  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  in 
a  liquid  state,  and  in  order  to  render  them  so,  the 
mouth,  whenever  we  are  eating,  is  furnished  with 
saliva. 

Smelling  is  closely  connected  with  tasting;  and 
the  organs  of  taste  and  smell,  namely,  the  mouth 
and  the  nose,  open  freely  into  each  other. 

Most  bodies  emit  a  smell: — that  is,  they  give 
out  odorous  particles.  These,  floating  in  the  air, 
are  drawn  into  the  nose,  and  are  there  made  sensi- 
ble to  us,  by  means  of  the  olfactory,  or  smelling, 
nerve. 

The  structure  of  the  nose  is  very  curious,  and 
most  beautifully  adapted  for  its  purposes.  The 
nose  is  a  large  cavity  formed  of  bones  and  gristle, 
opening  in  front  by  the  nostrils.  These  are  direct- 
ed downwards,  in  order  to  receive  smells,  which 
generally  ascend;  and  behind  are  two  wide  aper- 
tures which  lead  into  the  back  of  the  mouth. 

The  whole  inner  surface  of  the  nose  is  lined  by 
a  soft  and  delicate  membrane,  called  the  pituitary 
membrane,  in  the  substance  of  which  the  nerve 
of  smelling  is  spread  out.  This  membrane  is 
abundantly  supplied  with  blood,  and  it  is  in  con- 
sequence of  the  softness  of  its  texture  that  we  are 
very  liable  to  bleedings  from  the  nose. 

The  senses  of  smell  and  taste  convey  many 
powerful  and  delightful  sensations,  and  are  of  the 
highest  utility  in  guiding  us  in  the  selection  of  our 
food.  The  effluvium,  or  smell,  proceeding  from 
substances  is  in  general  a  correct  way  of  judging 


THE    EAR.  243 

as  to  their  wholesomeness  or  unwholesomeness, 
and  we  are  naturally  led  to  smell  any  thing  new  to 
us  before  we  venture  to  taste  it. 

The  ear  is  a  most  complex  and  beautiful  organ. 
It  is  the  most  perfect  acoustic,  or  hearing  instru- 
ment, with  which  we  are  acquainted,  and  the 
ingenuity  and  skill  of  man  would  be  ill  vain  exer- 
cised to  imitate  it. 

By  the  ear  we  are  made  sensible  of  sound.  If  a 
glass,  or  any  other  sonorous  body,  be  struck,  it  vi- 
brates, and  emits  what  we  call  sound.  This  sotind 
spreads  into  the  surrounding  air,  and  is  carried 
forwards,  by  a  series  of  undulations,  or  waves,  to  a 
distance  determined  by  its  fcrce  or  intensity,  and 
the  direction  of  the  wind. 

These  undulations  strike  the  ear,  and  give  us 
the  impression  of  sound.  In  order  that  this  im- 
pression should  be  conveyed  to  the  sensorium,  or 
brain,  the  ear  has  been  provided;  and  it  is  singu- 
larly and  beautifully  adapted  for  the  purpose. 

The  outward  ear  is  so  constructed  as  to  collect 
the  sound,  which  passes  forwards  and  strikes  what 
is  called  the  drum.  This  is  a  circular  membrane 
stretched  across  the  passage  leading  to  the  internal 
ear.  This  drum  vibrates,  and  gives  the  same 
vibration  to  a  set  of  curious  little  bones  connected 
with  it,  and  these  carry  the  sound  onwards  to  a 
winding  passage  filled  with  fluid. 

The  whole  surface  of  this  part  is  lined  by  the 
filaments,  or  twigs,  of  the  auditory  or  hearing 
nerve,  and  this  is  the  immediate  seat  of  the  impres- 


THE   EAR. 

sions  conveyed  to  us  by  the  sense  of  hearing. 
These  impressions  are  very  varied  in  their  charac- 
ter, and  excite  equally  varied  emotions  in  the 
mind,  from  the  rush  of  the  summer  breeze 
through  the  dancing  leaves,  to  the  peal  of  the 
thunder  storm,  and  the  softest  breathing  of  "dis- 
tant music." 


Questions. 

What  is  the  principal  agent  in  tasting  ? 

Can  the  tongue  be  moved  in  all  directions,  and  its  shape 
varied  ? 

What  is  the  surface  of  the  tongue  covered  with  ? 

Does  the  sense  of  taste  reside  in  the  papillae  ? 

Is  it  necessary  that  bodies  should  be  dissolved  to  enable  us 
to  taste  them  ? 

What  does  it  mean  when  we  say  that  things  have  a 
smell? 

How  is  it  that  smell  gets  into  the  nose  ? 

In  what  membrane  does  the  nerve  of  smell  expand  itself? 

Why  is  it  that  we  are  liable  to  bleedings  from  the  nose  ? 

Why  do  we  taste  and  smell  any  thing  fresh  to  us,  before 
eating  it? 

What  is  sound,  and  how  is  it  conveyed  to  the  ear  ? 

Can  you  give  any  account  of  the  way  sound  passes  to  the 
nerve  of  hearing  ? 


THE    EYE.  245 

LESSON  XVI. 

THE    EYE VISION. 

WHEN  we  look  at  the  eye,  we  see  that  the  front 
part  of  it  is  bright  and  transparent,  and  that  behind 
this  there  is  a  dark-looking  curtain,  with  an  open- 
ing in  its  centre.  The  bright  part  is  the  cornea, 
and  is  fixed  into  what  we  call  the  white  of  the 
eye,  very  much  in  the  same  way  that  a  watch-glass 
is  fixed  into  its  case.  The  curtain  is  named  the 
iris,  and  the  opening  through  it  the  pupil. 

The  iris  is  a  very  delicate  circular  muscle,  and 
its  colour  is  owing  to  a  dark  paint  which  covers  it 
behind,  and  which  easily  washes  off.  The  action 
of  the  iris  is  seen  if  we  bring  a  candle  close  to  the 
eye;  the  pupil  contracts  closer  and  closer,  accord- 
ing to  the  brightness  of  the  light,  and  enlarges 
again  as  it  is  removed.  In  order  that  its  action 
may  be  perfectly  free,  the  part  in  which  the  iris 
moves  is  filled  with  a  watery  fluid,  called  the 
aqueous  humour. 

Farther  back,  in  the  ball  of  the  eye,  are  other 
curious  parts,  as  the  crystalline  lens,  which  is  in 
shape  just  like  a  small  glass  in  a  telescope,  and 
is  placed  exactly  behind  the  pupil ;  and  a  third 
humour  called  the  vitreous  humour. 

All  these  parts  are  made  like  an  optical  instru- 
ment, to  conduct  and  gather  the  rays  of  light. 
They  are  subservient  to  another  part  called  the 


246  THE    EYE. 

retina,  which  is  the  expansion  of  the  optic  or 
seeing  nerve.  This  nerve  passes  through  the 
coats  of  the  eye,  and  immediately  divides  itself 
into  a  half  circular  net  work,  covering  and  lining 
the  whole  of  the  inner  surface  of  its  back  part. 

It  is  from  the  retina  that  we  receive  impressions 
of  light,  and  see  the  objects  around  us. 

The  ball  of  the  eye  is  of  a  roundish  shape,  and 
furnished  with  six  muscles,  by  means  of  which  it 
can  be  turned  in  every  direction. 

This  delicate  and  curious  organ,  the  eye,  is  very 
carefully  protected.  It  is  placed  in  a  bony  cavity 
called  the  orbit,  and  provided  with  two  moveable 
outside  curtains,  known  under  the  name  of  eye- 
lids. These  guard  it  from  dust,  keep  the  front 
bright  and  clear,  and  spread  the  tears  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  eyeball,  so  that  it  may  be 
always  moist,  and  easily  moveable.  In  these 
offices  the  eyelids  are  assisted  by  the  eyelashes 
and  the  eyebrows. 

To  enable  us  to  close  our  eyes  when  we  go  to 
sleep,  or  when  we  are  pained  by  an  excess  of 
light,  the  lids  are  provided  with  muscles,  and  can 
perform  very  rapid  motions. 

Let  us  now  consider  how  admirably  our  eyes 
are  fitted  for  vision.  It  is  light  which  renders 
things  visible  to  us,  for  we  cannot  see  in  a  dark 
room,  or  in  a  very  dark  night.  Now  what  we 
call  light  is  a  succession  of  rays,  proceeding  from 
any  luminous  body,  which  rays,  after  striking 
upon  objects,  are  reflected,  or  thrown  back.  When 


VISION*.  247 

we  see  an  object,  therefore,  it  is  because  these  re- 
flected rays  enter  our  eyes,  and  impinge  or  fall 
upon  the  retina.  In  this  way  a  perfect  picture  is 
formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  eye,  just  as  we  see  our 
face  reflected  in  a  looking-glass. 

In  order,  however,  that  the  image  or  picture 
may  be  formed  upon  the  retina,  it  is  needful  that 
the  rays  of  light  should  pass  through  the  eye. 
For  this  purpose  the  cornea  and  parts  behind  are 
transparent,  and  permit  the  rays  to  pass  freely, 
whilst  the  crystalline  lens  refracts  or  bends 
them,  so  that  they  proceed  in  a  proper  form  and 
direction. 

During  this  operation,  the  iris  contracts  or 
expands,  to  regulate  the  quantity  of  rays  which 
the  retina  can  bear.  By  this  beautiful  and  simple 
contrivance,  the  eye  accommodates  itself  to  the 
different  degrees  of  light  to  which  it  is  exposed. 
It  is  a  bad  thing  to  look  for  a  long  time  at  a  strong 
light,  as  this  weakens  the  iris,  and  blunts  the  sen- 
sibility of  the  retina,  and  consequently  injures  the 
sight. 

It  is  wonderful  to  think  what  perfect  instru- 
ments the  eyes  are.  Thus  in  looking  at  a  land- 
scape of  hill,  dale,  and  plain,  even  of  many  miles 
in  extent,  the  whole  space,  with  its  numberless 
objects  of  all  colours  and  sizes,  is  represented  on 
the  bottom  of  the  eye;  and  though  the  picture  is 
not  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  how  accurate  it  is, 
and  how  minute  in  all  its  details,  not  a  line  or  3 
shade  being  omitted! 


248  CHANGES  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY. 

Questions. 

What  do  we  see  when  we  look  at  the  front  of  the  eye  ? 

What  is  the  iris,  and  what  is  the  opening  through  it  called  1 

How  may  we  observe  the  action  of  the  iris  ? 

What  provision  is  made  that  it  may  move  freely  ? 

What  is  the  retina,  and  where  is  it  placed  ? 

Can  you  tell  what  part  of  the  eye  makes  us  sensible  of 
light,  and  enables  us  to  see  ? 

By  what  means  is  the  eye  protected "? 

What  is  light,  and  why  do  we  see  an  object? 

Can  you  tell  what  is  needful  in  order  that  a  picture  be 
formed  on  the  retina  1 

How  is  the  eye  accommodated  to  different  degrees  of 
light"? 

Mention  one  proof  of  the  wonderful  perfection  of  our  eyes. 


LESSON  XVII. 

CHANGES  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY INFANCY CHILD- 
HOOD  YOUTH MANHOOD AND  OLD  AGE. 

THE  changes  that  take  place  in  our  bodies,  as  we 
advance  from  infancy  to  old  age,  are  not  less  curi- 
ous than  instructive.  The  hand  of  our  Almighty 
and  all-wise  Creator  is  visibly  at  work  upon  us,  and 
we  find  that  in  every  period  of  life  our  organs  and 
their  actions  are  wonderfully  fitted  to  our  wants 
and  conditions. 

What  helpless  little  creatures  we  are  in  the 
earlier  periods  of  our  life,  and  how  totally  we  are 
dependent  upon  the  care  of  others.  An  infant 
cannot,  for  some  months,  even  direct  its  eyes  to 


CHANGES  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY.  249 

any  particular  point,  or  carry  its  hand  to  its  mouth. 
Its  bones  are  soft,  and  if  it  were  allowed  to  support 
itself,  its  limbs  would  bend  beneath  its  own  weight 
A  great  part  of  its  time  is  passed  in  sleep,  or  in 
satisfying  its  mere  animal  wants,  and  beyond  these 
its  feelings  seem  very  limited.  Digestion  and 
nutrition  are  however  very  active,  and  the  infant 
grows  rapidly. 

A  few  short  years,  and  what  different  beings  we 
become!  We  can  talk,  run,  leap,  feed  ourselves, 
and  from  morning  till  night  are  never  still.  We 
are  now  children  ;  our  bones  are  harder,  our  mus- 
cles stronger,  and  our  senses  more  perfect.  We 
eat  frequently,  because  our  bodies  are  fast  increas- 
ing, and  our  digestion  is  active.  We  have  teeth, 
and  our  diet  is  no  longer  milk  and  pulpy  matter,  but 
consists  of  various  articles,  as  bread,  butter,  cheese, 
fruit,  and  animal  food.  We  now  begin  to  exercise 
the  mind  ;  we  are  taught  the  names  of  objects,  how 
to  distinguish  what  is  right  from  what  is  wrong, 
and  we  learn  how  to  be  good  and  obedient.  We 
still,  however,  require  the  constant  care  of  our 
parents,  and  ought  never  to  be  long  out  of  their 
sight,  lest  our  ignorance  and  thoughtlessness  should 
lead  us  into  danger. 

Again,  a  few  years  pass  over  us,  and  we  arrive 
at  youth,  or  boyhood.  We  are  no  longer  confined 
to  the  nursery  or  playground,  nor  do  we  need  con- 
stant care,  for  we  have  learnt  how  to  protect  our- 
selves, and  know  what  to  avoid.  Our  bodies  are 
now  strong  and  vigorous.  Our  bones  are  almost 


250  CHANGES  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY 

completely  hardened,  and  our  muscles  capable  oi 
powerful  exertion.  We  can  carry  heavy  weights, 
and  go  through  a  great  deal  of  labour  or  of  active 
sport.  We  are  sent  from  home  to  acquire  know- 
ledge, for  during  this  part  of  our  lives  the  mind  is 
active  and  inquisitive,  and  it  is  our  duty  to  store  it 
with  useful  information,  so  as  to  fit  us  for  perform- 
ing our  public  and  private  duties.  We  now  begin 
to  mix  with  our  seniors,  and  occasionally  to  enter 
into  conversation  with  them,  as  we  can  think,  comr 
pare,  and  recollect.  Our  growth  is  still  going  on, 
but  less  actively  than  before,  and  most  of  our 
organs  and  functions  are  perfect. 

Again  a  few  brief  years,  and  we  are  men,  mix- 
ing with  the  world,  and  probably  removed  from 
our  parental  roof.  The  body  is  full  grown  and 
vigorous ;  the  complexion  darker  ;  the  voice  deeper 
and  more  powerful ;  the  muscles  larger  and  firmer ; 
the  bones  increased  in  thickness  ;  and  the  mental 
faculties  quite  mature.  The  whole  body  has  the 
appearance  of  ripeness,  and  its  shape  is  rounded 
and  well  defined.  We  are  now  masters  of  our 
own  actions,  and  responsible  agents,  and  in  most 
cases  dependent  on  our  own  exertions  for  support. 
Our  character  becomes  more  grave,  and  from  the 
constant  occasion  we  have  for  exercising  the  judg- 
ment, we  think  more,  and  lose  our  fondness  for 
many  of  those  active  exercises  which  delighted  us 
in  earlier  life. 

But  a  short  time,  and  another  change  comes  over 
us.  We  become  old  ;  we  lose  the  firm  step  and 


CHANGES  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY.  251 

determined  purpose  of  manhood  ;  the  buoyancy 
and  intelligence  of  youth  ;  the  hilarity  and  sport- 
iveness  of  childhood,  arrd  the  quiet  unconsciousness 
of  infancy.  The  body  shrivels,  and  its  outlines 
become  angular  ;  the  teeth  fall  out ;  the  eyes  are 
dim  ;  and  the  hearing,  touch,  and  taste,  imperfect. 
We  reach  the  verge  of  life  ;  and,  after  tottering  for 
a  while  upon  the  brink  of  the  grave,  we  die,  and 
the  place  which  knew  us  knows  us  no  more. 


Questions. 

Can  an  infant  direct  its  eyes  and  carry  its  hand  to  its 
mouth  1 

In  what  state  are  its  bones  1 

How  does  it  pass  the  greatest  part  of  its  time  ? 

Can  you  mention  how  we  are  changed  in  some  respects  in 
childhood  ? 

What  do  we  learn  at  this  period  of  our  lives  1      T  4  >; 

When  do  our  bones  become  hard,  and  our  muscles  capable 
of  great  exertion  ? 

Are  our  minds  active  and  inquisitive  in  youth  ? 

What  should  we  be  careful  to  do  at  this  time  1 

When  are  our  bodies  full  grown  1 

Are  our  complexion  and  voice  changed  in  manhood  1 

Why  is  it  that  we  no  longer  delight,  as  we  used  to  do,  in 
bodily  exercises  1 

What  happens  to  us  when  we  become  old  1 


952  DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  FORM 


LESSON  XVI1L 

DIFFERENCES  IN  THE  FORM  OF  MANKIND  AND  THE 
INFERIOR   ANIMALS. 

MAN  has  faculties  and  powers  which  raise  him 
in  the  scale  of  creation  far  above  every  other  liv- 
ing thing  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  To  man 
we  may  apply  the  words  of  the  Psalmist,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  works  of  the  Lord,  and  say, — "  Thou 
madest  him  to  have  dominion  over  the  works  of 
thy  hand/'  It  has  been  shown  hew  wonderful  his 
structure  is,  and  we  will  now  point  out  a  few  of  the 
differences  which  exist  between  mankind  and  other 
animals. 

The  structure  of  the  teeth,  and  the  form  and  size 
of  the  intestines  in  man,  differ  considerably  from 
those  of  the  inferior  animals.  These  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  be  fitted  for  the  kinds  of  food  which 
are  taken  by  human  beings. 

The  teeth  have  the  enamel  all  on  the  outside  ; 
but  in  such  animals  as  graze  or  feed  on  vegetable 
matter,  the  top  of  the  teeth  is  broad  and  uneven, 
and  has  ridges  of  enamel  mixed  with  the  bone. 
This  enables  them  to  grind  their  food  ;  for  the 
softer  bone  wears  away,  and  leaves  the  teeth  very 
irregular,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  hardness  of 
the  enamel. 

The  stomach  and  intestines  of  these  gramini 
vorous,  or  grass-eating,  animals,  also  differ  from 


OF  MEN  AND  ANIMALS.  253 

ours.  Those  who  chew  the  cud,  as  the  cow,  for 
instance,  have  more  than  one  stomach,  and  they 
can  return  their  food  into  the  mouth  to  he  still  far- 
ther masticated.  Their  intestines  are  also  very 
long,  much  longer  than  our  own. 

Such  animals  as  are  carnivorous,  or  flesh-eating, 
have  a  structure  just  the  reverse  :  their  teeth  are 
large,  sharp,  and  pointed  ;  their  stomach  is  small 
and  simple  ;  and  their  intestines  are  very  short. 

The  teeth  and  intestines  of  man  are  in  form  and 
size  between  the  two  :  we  have  neither  the  rough 
grinding  teeth  and  double  stomach  of  the  cow,  nor 
the  fangs  and  short  intestines  of  the  lion. 

The  cause  of  this  difference  is  obvious.  Vegeta- 
ble food  is  much  less  nutritious  than  animal  food, 
and  it  requires  a  long  time  to  extract  the  nourish- 
ing juices  from  it.  Hence,  the  cow  grinds  it  twice 
over,  and  hence  it  has  to  pass  through  a  canal  of 
great  length.  In  the  lion,  the  food  is  much  more 
nourishing  and  easier  of  digestion.  Hence  its 
teeth  are  made  to  tear,  and  pull  the  food  into  pieces; 
its  stomach  is  small  and  simple,  and  the  canal 
short. 

in  man,  the  teeth  are  set  even  in'  the  jaws,  and 
are  fitted  both  for  biting  and  grinding,  though  he 
cannot  tear  his  food  like  the  lion,  or  reduce  it  into 
so  complete  a  pulp  as  the  cow.  His  stomach  is  of 
moderate  size,  and  his  intestines  of  a  medium 
length.  By  these  means  we  are  enabled  to  feed  on 
and  to  digest  both  animal  and  vegetable  substances; 
and  for  this  reason  man  is  called  omnivorous. 
Y 


254  FORM    OP    MEN    AND    ANIMALS. 

Man  alone  has  the  front  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw 
standing  in  an  upright  direction;  in  all  other  crea- 
tures they  slope  backwards,  hence  we  are  the  only 
animal  which  has  a  proper  chin. 

Quadrupeds  whose  heads  are  heavy  and  hang 
down,  are  provided  with  a  very  curious  and  strong 
ligament,  popularly  called  pack-wax,  at  the  back 
of  the  neck,  to  hold  the  head  up.  We  have 
nothing  of  the  sort,  as  our  head  is  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  spine,  and  needs  no  such  support. 

If  we  watch  a  horse  or  a  cow  on  a  warm  day, 
when  the  flies  are  troublesome,  we  shall  see  that 
they  have  the  power  of  wrinkling  and  contracting 
the  skin,  so  as  to  dislodge  any  thing  which  settles 
upon  it.  This  is  owing  to  a  thin  muscular  layer 
stretched  beneath  the  skin,  and  called  the  panni- 
culus  carnosus.  We  have  nothing  of  the  sort,  as 
our  hands  can  reach  all  parts  of  our  bodies,  and 
consequently  we  do  not  want  it. 


Questions. 

Do  our  teeth  differ  from  those  of  grazing  animals  1 
What  animals  have  longer  intestines  than  man  1 
What  kind  of  teeth  and  stomachs  have  carnivorous  animals  ! 
Why  is  man  omnivorous  ? 
How  is  the  head  of  quadrupeds  sustained  1 
By  what  means  do  animals  free  their  skins  from  insects  or 
4>ther  foreign  bodies  1 


INSTINCT. 


LESSON  XIX. 

X 

OP    THE    INSTINCT    OF    MAN    AND    ANIMALS- 
REASON. 

ANIMALS  are  guided  in  supplying  their  wants, 
in  rearing  their  young,  and  in  protecting  them- 
selves from  danger,  by  instiAct.  If  grass  be  given 
to  a  dog,  and  flesh  to  a  cow,  neither  will  be  touched 
by  those  animals.  This  is  the  result  of  instinct. 
The  structure,  indeed,  of  the  digestive  organs  in 
animals  is  fitted  only  for  that  one  kind  of  food 
which  they  always  take  when  they  are  in  a  state 
of  nature. 

In  judging  of  the  habits  of  animals,  we  should 
remember  that  we  are  liable  to  be  deceived  if  we 
consider  those  only  which  are  domesticated.  The 
taste  of  domesticated  animals  becomes  to  some 
extent  changed,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  their 
health  is  inferior  to  that  of  wild  creatures,  and 
why  they  are  liable  to  many  diseases. 

By  instinct  we  understand  a  propensity  and  a 
power  for  performing  certain  actions  which  are 
necessary  for  our  preservation.  Instinct  has  been 
given  to  us  by  our  Almighty  Father  in  order  that 
such  actions  may  be  performed  at  once,  and  without 
the  aid  of  our  slower  process  of  reasoning, — for  we, 
as  well  as  animals,  have  instinctive  actions. 

Thus  when  we  are  in  danger,  we  either  fiy  from 
it,  or  defend  ourselves  as  we  best  can,  with  scarcely 


256 

any  knowledge  of  what  wre  are  doing.  If,  for 
example,  we  have  the  misfortune  to  fall  into  water, 
and  cannot  swim,  the  instinct  of  self-preservation 
often  enables  us  to  escape  drowning,  though  we 
can  give  no  account,  or  but  a  very  confused  one, 
of  the  means  we  took  to  effect  this. 

As  it  is  essential  to  our  well-being  and  existence 
that  we  should  be  nourished  and  refreshed  by  food, 
and  drink,  what  we  call  hunger  and  thirst  are  in- 
stinctive wants,  and  are  quite  independent  of  our 
will. 

This  is  a  wise  and  merciful  arrangement  of 
Providence;  for  did  the  supply  of  our  necessities 
depend  solely  upon  our  own  wishes,  how  often 
should  we  neglect  them,  and  thus  derange  the 
system,  or,  perhaps,  even  destroy  health.  In  grief, 
in  the  hurry  of  business,  in  study,  and  on  other 
occasions  when  the  attention  is  engrossed,  did  not 
hunger  and  thirst  remind  us  of  what  was  going  on 
within  us,  we  should  abstain  from  food  till  our 
strength  was  exhausted. 

Thus  man  and  animals  are  equally  possessed  of 
instinct.  In  addition  to  this,  however,  man  has 
reason — the  noblest  of  all  his  attributes,  and  which 
has  been  denied  to  the  brute  creation. 

The  importance  of  reason  or  understanding  may 
be  seen  by  noting  our  own  actions: — when,  for 
instance,  we  meet  with  some  new  object,  as  a  stone, 
or  a  plant.  We  look  at  it,  and  examine  it;  we 
know  nothing  about  it ;  it  is  quite  new  to  us. 
Reason  is  now  called  in  to  assist  us;  we  wish  to 


REASON.  257 

acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  object,  and  we  begin 
to  think  about  it,  and  we  endeavour  to  find  out 
what  it  is. 

First,  then,  we  consider  whether  we  have  ever 
seen  any  thing  resembling  it;  this  is  an  exercise 
of  memory;  then  we  compart  it  with  surrounding 
objects;  we  then  taste  it,  or  smell  it,  and  feel  it, 
and  thus  acquire  a  knowledge  of  its  sensible  quali- 
ties. We  now  know  a  great  deal  about  it,  and 
begin  to  reflect  as  to  what  its  nature  and  uses  may 
be.  We  judge  that  it  is  fit  or  unfit  for  food,  that 
it  has  the  same  properties  as  some  other  known 
body,  and  finally  we  satisfy  ourselves  upon  all 
points  connected  with  it  This  done,  we  seldom 
forget  it.  We  know  something  that  we  were  ig- 
norant of  before,  and  thus  by  a  course  of  observa- 
tion we  go  on  acquiring  knowledge. 

Nothing  of  this  is  ever  seen  amongst  other  ani- 
mals. The  most  beautiful  objects  are  passed  over 
by  them  with  perfect  indifference,,  and  not  the 
slightest  attention  is  paid  by  them  to  any  thing  but 
what  supplies  their  simplest  wants. 

Thus  man  stands  alone  in  his  pre-eminence  of 
intellect,  and  well  might  the  greatest  of  uninspired 
poets  exclaim: — "What  a  piece  of  work  is  man! 
how  noble  in  reason!  how  infinite  in  faculties!  in 
form  and  moving  how  express  and  admirable!  in 
action  how  like  an  angel!  in  apprehension  how 
like  a  God!  the  beauty  of  the  world!  the  paragon 
of  animals!" 

Y* 


258  PERFECTION    OF    BODY    AND    MIND. 

Questions, 

Why  is  grass  refused  by  a  dog  and  flesh  by  a  cow  1 

Why  should  we  be  cautious  in  judging  of  the  habits  of  ani- 
mals from  those  of  domesticated  ones  ? 

What  do  we  understand  by  instinct? 

For  what  reason  has  instinct  been  given  to  us "? 

Are  we  always  conscious  of  the  means  by  which  we  escape 
from  danger  1 

What  are  hunger  and  thirst  1 

What  might  happen  did  instinct  not  govern  these  1 

Is  instinct  common  to  man  and  animals  ] 

What  has  man  beyond  instinct  which  brutes  have  not? 

Endeavour  to  describe  the  mode  in  which  our  reason  ope- 
rates when  we  find  any  new  object. 

How  do  we  acquire  knowledge  ? 

Is  any  thing  like  this  discoverable  amongst  animals] 


LESSON  XX. 

THE  BEAUTY  AND  PERFECTION  OF  BODY  AND 
MIND HEALTH. 

THE  human  form  is  beautiful  and  graceful. 
The  limbs  are  straight  and  full  of  symmetry, — the 
countenance  pleasing  and  expressive, — the  motions 
active  and  powerful.  Much  of  this  depends  upon 
the  care  taken  of  infants  during  their  early  years, 
for  awkward  habits  are  acquired,  and  bodily 
strength  is  impaired,  by  negligence. 

In  infancy  children  should  be  taught  to  hold  the 
body  erect,  whether  sitting,  standing,  or  walking; 
and  they  should  never  be  allowed  to  lounge  with 


HEALTH.  259 

the  head  hanging  down,  or  the  shoulders  brought 
forwards.  They  should  be  encouraged  to  take 
light  exercises  suited  to  their  strength,  and  tending 
to  make  the  limbs  agile  and  supple,  and  prepare 
them  for  labour.  Nothing  is  worse  than  to  sit 
moping  and  idle.  If  we  do  so,  we  lose  our  liveli- 
ness and  spirits,  become  dull  and  stupid,  and  never 
possess  that  charm  which  cheerfulness  gives  to 
ourselves  and  to  others. 

But  beauty  does  not  consist  alone  in  bodily  per- 
fections. It  is  in  vain  that  we  are  handsome  or 
well  shaped,  if  our  mind  and  disposition  be  not 
properly  cultivated.  Our  passions  and  tempers 
require  particular  care.  If  we  are  quarrelsome, 
revengeful,  or  obstinate,  we  are  constantly  doing 
some  wickedness,  and  making  ourselves  and  our 
friends  unhappy.  Our  countenance  is  deprived 
of  its  delightful  expression, — our  hearts  are  full 
of  bad  thoughts, — and  nobody  loves  us. 

In  early  life  also,  we  should  be  very  attentive 
to  the  instructions  which  are  given  to  us,  for  our 
minds  are  then  peculiarly  suited  to  receive  in- 
struction. If  we  suffer  this  time  to  pass  away  in 
idleness  and  indifference,  we  shall  never  cease  to 
regret  it,  because  in  after  life  we  shall  neither  have 
time  nor  inclination  to  atone  for  our  foolishness. 

However  perfect  the  body  and  mind  may  be, 
we  are  useless  to  ourselves  and  to  others  without 
health.  This  is  the  greatest  blessing  that  we  can 
enjoy,  for  without  it  neither  riches,  nor  wisdom, 
nor  goodness  can  avail  us.  How  needful  is  it, 


260  HEALTH. 

therefore,  that  we  should  take  every  means  to 
procure  it,  and  every  care  to  preserve  it. 

We  are  in  good  health  when  we  relish  our 
food,  and  feel  no  uneasiness;  when  we  have  the 
free  use  of  our  limbs,  when  our  senses  are  perfect, 
when  our  mind  is  unclouded,  when  our  sleep  is 
sound  and  undisturbed,  and  when  we  can  bear  the 
changes  in  the  weather; — or,  in  other  words,  we 
enjoy  good  health,  when  all  the  functions  of  our 
body  are  performed  in  their  proper  order,  and 
without  conveying  any  disagreeable  sensations. 

Much  of  their  future  health  depends  upon  the 
treatment  children  receive  till  they  are  ten  years 
of  age.  If  during  that  time  they  are  allowed  to 
eat  improper  food,  are  confined  in  a  close  and 
unwholesome  atmosphere,  and  are  suffered  to  be 
filthy  in  their  persons,  the  seeds  of  many  diseases 
are  sown  in  the  system,  from  which  they  may, 
probably,  never  be  able  to  free  themselves. 

To  keep  our  body  in  health  many  things  are 
needful.  It  must  be  nourished  by  proper  food, 
protected  by  fit  clothing,  refreshed  by  rest,  exer- 
cised by  labour,  kept  perfectly  clean,  preserved 
from  outward  injuries,  respiration  carried  on  in 
pure  air,  and  the  passions  properly  regulated. 


Questions. 

What  is  observable  as  to  our  general  form  1 
At  what  period  of  our  lives  should  we  be  carefully  at- 

tended  to  ? 

Can  you  tell  what  should  be  taught  us  in  childhood,  and 

what  kind  of  exercise  we  should  be  encouraged  to  take  t 


BATING    AND    DRINKING.  261 

What  happens  if  we  pass  our  time  in  idleness  1 

By  what  means  shall  we  make  ourselves  and  friends  un- 
happy 1 

Why  should  we  be  careful  to  learn  early  in  life  1 

What  must  happen  if  we  are  not  so  ? 

What  is  the  greatest  blessing  we  can  enjoy? 

When  are  we  in  good  health  1 

By  what  means  may  our  health  be  ruined  when  we  are 
children  1 

Are  we  liable  to  many  disorders  at  this  period  1 

Can  you  repeat  by  what  means  our  health  is  preserved? 


LESSON  XXI. 

OF  EATING  AND  DRINKING FOOD  AND  DRINKS. 

_ 

WE  eat  and  drink  in  order  to  appease  our 
hunger  and  thirst,  and  to  supply  the  waste  going 
on  in  our  bodies.  Young  people  generally  eat 
more  than  old  people,  because  they  are  growing, 
and  their  digestion  is  rapid.  The  principal  arti- 
cles of  our  diet  are — bread,  garden  vegetables, 
fruit,  milk,  and  animal  food,  such  as  fish,  fowl, 
beef,  mutton,  veal,  and  pork. 

We  live  best  on  a  mixed  diet,  neither  confined 
to  animal  nor  vegetable  food,  nor  to  one  particular 
kind  of  either.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  our  meals 
generally  consist  of  different  dishes.  We  should, 
however,  be  very  careful  not  to  mix  too  great  a 
variety  of  different  substances  in  our  stomachs  at 
one  time. 


262  EATING    AND    DRINKING. 

Hunger  is  the  best  sauce,  and  the  best  cook. 
We  may  pamper  our  appetites  with  luxuries,  but 
we  shall  never  relish  any  thing  unless  we  come  to 
it  hungry  ;  and  if  we  are  hungry,  the  simplest 
fare  becomes  a  luxury. 

Labour  and  exercise  in  the  open  air  are  the 
best  promoters  of  appetite;  when  we  have  taken 
these,  we  eat  our  meals  with  a  relish,  and  they  do 
us  good.  It  is  a  grievous  error,  however,  to  sup- 
pose that  eating  a  great  deal  is  a  proof  of  a  healthy 
appetite ;  or  that  by  eating  much,  we  get  more 
nourishment. 

It  is  useless  to  eat  more  than  the  stomach  can 
digest,  and  no  stomach  can  digest  food  when  it  is 
overloaded.  The  undigested  food,  therefore,  has 
to  be  pushed  into  the  bowels  unprepared,  and 
there  it  excites  all  sorts  of  mischief;  hence  we 
see  that  great  eaters  are  in  general  thin,  and  pale, 
and  look  unhealthy. 

It  is  advisable  that  most  part  of  our  food, 
whether  animal  or  vegetable,  should  undergo  some 
preparation  before  it  is  taken  into  our  stomach, 
that  it  may  be  softened,  improved  in  flavour,  and 
rendered  more  digestible.  This  process  is  called 
cooking.  Vegetables  are  mostly  boiled  or  stew- 
ed;— animal  food  either  roasted,  stewed,  or  boiled. 

We  should  not,  when  we  are  in  health,  take 
food  too  often.  The  stomach  is  three  or  four 
hours  in  digesting  a  meal ;  and  if  we  take  another 
before  the  previous  one  is  removed  from  it,  it  in- 
terrupts its  actions,  and  deranges  its  functions. 


KATINO    AND    DSINKING.  263 

Every  meal  should  consist  of  a  due  mixture  of 
solids  and  fluids.  It  is  a  bad  thing  to  eat  largely 
without  drinking,  and  properly  mixing  the  food 
with  the  saliva.  We  should,  therefore,  never  eat 
hastily,  but  masticate  what  we  take  very  well,  and 
drink  when  we  feel  a  desire  so  to  do. 

The  best  and  most  universally  palatable  drink  is 
pure  water.  At  meal  times  this  is  the  most  proper 
drink, — but  there  is  no  objection  to  weak  table 
beer  :  children  should  never  be  allowed  any  thing 
stronger  ;  and  it  would  be  much  better  for  all,  to 
abstain  from  wine  and  strong  drinks.  These  sti- 
mulate the  stomach  too  much ;  and  in  the  end  in- 
jure its  tone,  and  bring  on  indigestion. 

It  is  a  dangerous  thing  to  begin  to  drink  wine 
and  spirituous  liquors  early  in  life.  God,  who  has 
given  them  to  us,  has  no  doubt  designed  them  for 
our  benefit;  but  no  part  of  his  gifts  is  more  abused. 
As  they  are  not  necessary  for  us  in  health,  we  had 
better  avoid  them,  lest  we  should  be  betrayed  into 
that  most  odious  of  vices — drunkenness. 

In  this  state  we  are  deprived  of  reason,  and  may 
commit  crimes  of  the  most  horrid  character  almost 
unknowingly  ;  and  even  if  we  escape  these,  we 
are  objects  of  detestation,  and  offend  all  decency 
and  good  manners.  Besides  this,  the  constant  ex- 
cessive use  of  these  fluids  weakens  the  stomach, 
impairs  the  senses,  and  brings  on  dropsy,  and  other 
diseases 

We  should  make  it  a  rule  never  to  eat  or  drink 
any  thing  very  hot,  as  this  spoils  the  teeth  and 


264  CLOTHING. 

injures  the  digestive  organs.  When  we  are  much 
heated  by  exercise,  and  perspiring  profusely,  we 
ought  never  to  drink  cold  water.  Many  accidents 
have  happened  from  this  imprudence — the  sys- 
tem not  being  able  to  bear  the  shock. 


Questions. 

For  what  purpose  do  we  eat  and  drink  T 

Why  do  young  people  eat  more  than  old  people  ? 

What  is  the  reason  that  our  meals  consist  of  different  sorts 
of  food  ? 

How  may  the  simplest  fare  be  made  a  luxury  1 

What  are  the  best  promoters  of  appetite  1 

Is  it  well  to  eat  a  great  deal  ? 

What  are  the  objects  of  cooking? 

Why  should  we  not  take  food  oftener  than  every  three  or 
four  hours  1 

What  is  the  best  drink  1 

Why  should  we  not  drink  wine  at  dinner  1 

To  what  is  the  early  use  of  wine  likely  to  lead  1 

Of  what  does  drunkenness  deprive  us,  and  what  may  be  the 
consequences'? 

Why  should  we  abstain  from  very  hot  food  or  drink  1 


LESSON  XXII. 

OF    CLOTHING. 

OUR  dress  should  be  made  in  such  a  manner, 
and  of  such  materials,  that  we  may  feel  neither 
uncomfortably  hot,  nor  uncomfortably  cold.  It 
should,  therefore,  be  suited  to  the  season,  and  the 
particulaV  habit  of  body  or  the  state  of  health. 


CLOTHING.  265 

We  should  not  allow  what  is  called  fashion  to 
interfere  with  this  arrangement  of  clothing  ;  for, 
if  our  system  is  delicate,  and  our  constitution 
naturally  cold,  it  concerns  our  health  and  daily 
comfort  that  we  should  be  clad  accordingly.  At 
the  same  time,  our  dress  ought  always  to  be  neat, 
as  nothing  can  look  worse  than  a  young  person 
who  is  slovenly  and  careless  about  his  apparel. 

It  is  by  far  the  best  to  be  accustomed  from 
childhood  to  a  light  and  cool  dress,  and  to  be 
inured  to  cold.  Nothing  is,  indeed,  more  hurtful 
than  to  be  muffled  up  and  buried  in  a  heap  of 
clothes,  so  that  we  cannot  stir  or  take  any  proper 
exercise,  without  becoming  overheated,  whilst  the 
perspiration  is  pent  up,  and  does  not  evaporate. 
Thus  our  clothes  are  made  damp  and  uncomforta- 
ble, and  we  are  liable  to  take  cold  the  moment  we 
get  into  a  draught  of  air. 

We  generally  err,  however,  in  wearing  too  light 
a  dress  in  summer.  We  should  bear  in  mind, 
that  the  heat  of  the  weather  relaxes  the  skin,  opens 
the  pores,  and  increases  the  action  of  the  heart. 
We,  therefore,  almost  constantly  feel  hot,  and  are 
perspiring,  and  we  throw  the  windows  open,  or 
seek  the  coldest  places  we  can  find.  It  is  in  this 
way  that  so  many  colds  are  caught ;  as  the  perspi- 
ration is  suddenly  checked,  and  produces  fever,  and 
slight  inflammation  of  the  air  passages. 

Never  wear  any  part  of  your  dress  so  tight  as 
to  press  upon  the  body.     All  that  is  required  is 
that  your  clothes  fit  comfortably,  and  if  they  pinch 
Z 


£66  CLOTHING. 

you  or  constrain  your  motions,  they  are  sure  to  do 
mischief. 

The  best  dress  for  a  boy  is  a  round  short  jacket, 
made  of  strong  woollen  cloth,  a  waistcoat  of  the 
same,  and  quite  easy,  a  pair  of  wide  trousers,  but- 
toning to  the  waistcoat — in  winter  of  good  kersey- 
mere, and  in  summer  of  some  thinner  woollen 
cloth ;  light  woollen  stockings,  and  shoes  made 
sufficiently  wide. 

Boots  which  lace  up  the  leg  are  the  worst  things 
that  can  possibly  be  worn,  as  they  not  only  inter- 
rupt the  circulation,  but  keep  the  feet  hot  and 
damp.  Narrow  pointed  shoes  are  also  very  im- 
proper, as  they  cramp  and  contract  the  toes,  and 
prevent  that  freedom  of  action  in  them  which  was 
intended  to  assist  us  in  walking. 

The  feet  should  always  be  sufficiently  clad,  and 
preserved  from  wet.  Colds  are  often  given  by 
want  of  proper  care  in  this  respect ;  and  it  is  a 
maxim,  that  to  preserve  health,  we  must  keep  the 
"feet  warm  by  exercise,  and  the  head  cool  by 
temperance." 

Thick  fur  caps  are  rarely  advisable  as  coverings 
for  the  head  ;  they  overheat  it,  and  often  give  rise 
to  scald  head  and  tender  eyes.  Amongst  children, 
too,  the  neck  should  be  left  nearly  bare,  and  every 
thing  in  the  shape  of  handkerchief  studiously 
avoided. 

There  is  no  part  of  our  conduct  in  which  we 
exhibit  more  absurd  caprice  than  in  our  clothing. 
Taste  or  fashion  is  permitted  to  lead  us  into  ridicu- 


EXERCISE    AND    REST.  267 

lous  and    unbecoming   costumes,   and  not  unfre- 
quently  we  sacrifice  our  health  at  its  shrine. 

Tight  clothes  for  either  sex  are  very  ruinous  to 
the  health.  They  interfere  with  the  free  action 
of  the  lungs,  by  pressing  on  the  chest  and  sides  ; 
and  injure  the  organs  of  digestion  in  the  same 
way.  Indigestion  and  consumption  are  oftentimes 
the  consequences. 


Questions. 

How,  and  of  what  materials,  should  our  dress  be  made 

Should  our  clothing  be  varied  according  to  circumstances  1 

What  kind  of  dress  is  it  best  to  be  used  to  ? 

"Why  are  a  heap  of  clothes  hurtful  to  us  ? 

What  should  we  be  careful  about  in  our  summer  dress,  and 
why  ? 

To  what  particular  as  to  fitting,  should  we  always  attend  ? 

Can  you  tell  why  lace-boots  and  pointed  shoes  are  im- 
proper 1 

Why  should  we  be  careful  in  keeping  our  feet  dry? 

What  mischief  may  arise  from  fur  caps  1 

What  injuries  are  produced  by  tight  clothes  1 


LESSON  XXIII. 

OF  EXERCISE  AND  REST. 


HOWEVER  good  our  health  may  be,  exercise  is 
absolutely  essential  to  keeping  it  so.  This  should, 
if  possible,  be  taken  in  the  open  air  ;  and  then  we 
find  that  it  exhilarates  and  refreshes  us,  makes  us 


268  EXERCISE    AND    REST. 

cheerful  and  lively,  promotes  digestion,  and  pro 
cures  us  sound  slumbers. 

Labour,  which  is  only  exercise  of  a  severer  kind, 
is  highly  salutary  to  us.  It  makes  the  body  strong 
and  robust,  gives  it  firmness  and  tone,  and  pro- 
longs life,  by  warding  off  those  evils  which  flow 
from  idleness. 

Walking,  running,  leaping,  riding,  and  perform 
ing  manual  labour,  are  all  proper  for  us  ;  and  we 
ought  to  diversify  our  studies  and  pursuits,  if 
sedentary,  by  devoting  some  part  of  every  day  to 
them.  We  should,  however,  be  careful  not  to 
continue  them  too  long  or  too  violently  ;  as  by 
doing  so,  we  exhaust  our  strength,  and  may  injure 
our  health. 

Exercise  is  particularly  advantageous  to  chil- 
dren. At  that  time  of  life  our  feelings  prompt  us 
to  be  always  in  motion;  and  this  disposition  should 
not  be  checked.  We  observe  the  same  thing  in 
the  young  of  all  animals;  witness  the  playfulness 
of  kittens,  and  the  sportive  actions  of  the  colt. 
This  is  a  wise  ordination  of  Providence,  and  cal- 
culated to  encourage  the  growth  of  all  our  organs. 
We  are  not  then  fit  for  any  thing  like  labour,  our 
bodies  not  having  attained  sufficient  strength  for 
continued  exertion. 

We  should  generally  avoid  taking  exercise  im- 
mediately after  a  full  meal.  The  stomach  is  then 
actively  engaged  in  digestion,  and  violent  motion 
disturbs  its  operations,  and  is  very  apt  to  produce 
nausea,  or  sickness. 


EXEHCISE  AND  REST*.  269 

It  is  necessary  that  some  part  of  our  time 
should  be  passed  in  sleep.  Complete  repose,  and 
the  absence  of  all  usual  stimulants,  recruit  and 
refresh  the  body  and  mind ;  and  however  languid 
and  fatigued  We  may  be,  a  night's  sound  sleep 
renovates  our  strength  and  spirits. 

It  is  a  bad  thing  to  indulge  in  sleep  during  the 
day,  as  we  almost  always  feel  heavy  and  dull  after 
it.  Young  children,  however,  should  repose  an 
hour  or  two  about  noon,  because  their  activity 
tires  them  out,  and  makes  them  fretful  and  uneasy 
before  bed-time. 

Sleeping  apartments  should  be  large  and  lofty, 
and  plenty  of  fresh  air  should  be  admitted.  Bed- 
hangings  are  bad  things  in  the  rooms  of  young 
people,  as  they  confine  the  air,  prevent  it  circu- 
lating freely  about  the  bed,  and  render  the  apart- 
ment unwholesome. 

A  hair  mattress  is  by  far  the  best  thing  to  sleep 
upon,  and  children  should  never  be  laid  upon  any 
thing  else.  Feather  beds,  though  very  comfort- 
able, and  indispensable  to  persons  who  are  accus- 
tomed to  them,  are  too  warm  and  relaxing. 

We  should  be  very  careful  not  to  be  loaded 
with  bed-clothes,  and  above  all  things,  never  sleep 
with  the  head  buried  under  them :  on  the  con- 
trary, the  head,  neck,  and  upper  part  of  the  chest, 
should  rest  on  the  pillow,  and  always  be  exposed. 

The  habit  of  lying  in  bed  late  in  the  morning  is 
very  prejudicial  to  health.  Not  only  do  we  lose 
the  "sweet  hour  of  prime,"  the  most  delightful 
z  2 


270  CLEANLINESS. 

part  of  the  day,  but  we  sacrifice  a  great  portion  of 
our  lives  to  sheer  indolence.  Grown-up  people 
do  not  require  more  than  eight  hours'  rest,  out 
of  the  twenty-four.  Young  children,  however, 
should  go  to  bed  at  seven  o'clock  in  the  evening, 
and  be  allowed  to  remain  till  the  same  hour  in  the 
morning. 


Questions. 

What  benefits  do  we  derive  from  exercise  taken  m  the 
open  air  ? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  labour  7 

Name  the  kinds  of  exercise  that  are  proper  for  us. 

What  is  the  disposition  of  children  as  to  exercise  ? 

Is  the  same  thing  to  be  observed  in  the  young  of  animals  ? 

When  should  we  not  take  exercise  ? 

What  are  the  effects  of  sleep  1 

Why  are  bed-hangings  objectionable  1 

What  is  the  best  kind  of  bed  1 

What  parts  of  our  bodies  should  be  always  uncovered 
during  sleep  1 

Tell  what  we  lose  by  lying  in  a  morning. 

What  number  of  hours  is  sufficient  for  grown  persons  and 
children  to  spend  in  sleep  1 


LESSON  XXIV. 

OP    CLEANLINESS    IN   PERSON    AND    DRESS. 

IF  we  wish  to  enjoy  good  health,  we  must  keep 
our  persons,  dress,  and  habitations  clean.  Numerous 
disorders  arise  from  want  of  due  attention  to  this. 


CLEANLINESS.  271 

The  houses  of  many  poor  people  in  towns  are 
filthy,  and  are  situated  in  back  streets,  which  are 
seldom  swept,  and  are  badly  paved.  This  makes 
them  liable  to  contagious  diseases.  Not  only  does 
the  general  health  suffer,  but  the  skin,  when  it  is 
allowed  to  be  dirty,  contracts  a  number  of  dis- 
gusting and  malignant  eruptions. 

If  a  child  is  regularly  washed,  its  skin  will  be 
free  from  rashes,  and  as  soft  and  smooth  as  velvet; 
but  what  wretched  objects  do  we  often  see— the 
face  and  body  covered  with  blotches,  and  the  eyes 
red  and  inflamed. 

To  keep  ourselves  free  from  these  dangerous 
and  unsightly  affections,  the  use  of  soap  and  water 
is  all  that  is  necessary.  Not  only  should  the  face, 
hands,  and  feet,  but  the  whole  body  also,  be  con- 
stantly washed,  and  bathing  should  be  resorted  to 
as  often  as  possible. 

All  boys  should  be  taught  to  swim,  and  no  child 
should  ever  venture  into  the  water  except  in  the 
presence  of  a  grown-up  person. 

When  you  bathe,  plunge  at  once  over  head,  and 
keep  constantly  moving  about.  Never  bathe  just 
after  violent  exercise,  and  when  you  are  over- 
heated and  perspiring:  this  is  very  dangerous,  and 
may  bring  on  cramp  of  the  stomach  or  limbs. 

If  the  health  is  delicate,  it  is  safer  to  bathe  in 
the  sea  than  in  rivers ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  we 
ought  to  be  in  good  health  when  we  go  into  the 
\yater.  After  bathing,  we  should  never  sit  or 
stard  still 5  if  we  do  so,  we  are  apt  to  get  chill v 


CLEANLINESS. 

and  cold:  gentle  exercise,  as  quiet  walking,  should, 
therefore,  always  follow. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  place  we 
bathe  in  is  free  from  sunken  rocks  and  deep  holes, 
as  we  may  strike  ourselves  against  the  one,  and 
stick  fast  in  the  other.  We  ought,  therefore, 
never  to  venture  into  an  unknown  place ;  many 
boys  have  lost  their  lives  for  want  of  this  caution. 

It  is  not  enough  that  our  skin  is  clean;  unless 
our  dress  and  habitations  are  free  from  filth,  we 
cannot  keep  it  so.  Our  under  clothing  should 
be  frequently  changed,  and  our  dress  at  all  times 
should  be  perfectly  clean  and  neat. 

The  rooms  in  which  we  live  should  be  washed, 
scoured,  painted,  and  whitewashed,  from  time  to 
time,  and  there  should  be  a  free  current  of  air 
through  them. 

Our  bed-linen  should  also  be  clean,  and  often 
renewed,  and  the  beds  and  mattresses  beaten,  and 
now  and  then  taken  into  the  open  air.  Not  only 
should  the  inside  of  our  houses  be  attended  to,  but 
every  thing  about  the  outside  as  well. 


Questions. 

From  what  cause  do  many  diseases  arise  ? 

Why  are  the  poor  liable  to  contagious  disorders  ? 

What  part  is  very  often  diseased  for  want  of  cleanliness  ? 

What  difference  do  we  see  between  a  child  regularly 
washed,  and  one  that  is  neglected  1 

By  what  simple  means  may  we  preserve  ourselves  from 
many  unsightly  diseases  1 


PURE    AIR.  273 

How  often  should  we  wash  ourselves  1 

What  should  all  boys  be  taught? 

Should  a  child  ever  go  into  the  water  alone  I 

Mention  some  of  the  things  that  should  be  attended  to  in 
bathing. 

What  should  we  be  particularly  attentive  to  in  our  dress  ? 

What  means  should  be  taken  to  keep  rooms  clean  and 
sweet  ? 


LESSON  XXV. 

OF    PURE    AIR. 

HEALTH  is  frequently  injured  by  breathing 
impure  air.  People  who  are  employed  in  pre- 
paring metals,  especially  lead  and  quicksilver,  are 
generally  pale  and  emaciated,  and  die  young, 
because  the  vapours  which  proceed  from  the  sub- 
stances on  which  they  work  are  noxious,  and,  by 
being  drawn  into  their  lungs,  poison  them  by  de- 
grees. Painters  are  often  afflicted  with  palsy  of 
the  arms,  and  dreadful  attacks  of  cholrc,  from  in- 
haling the  effluvium  of  white  lead  when  they  are 
painting. 

How  uncomfortable  are  our  feelings  when  shut 
up  in  a  close  room  with  several  other  persons. 
We  become  hot,  uneasy,  drowsy,  stupid,  and  un- 
willing to  move:  but  let  us  escape  from  it,  and  get 
into  the  open  air,  and  what  a  delightful  change 
takes  place.  We  shake  off  our  lethargy,  are  lively 
and  animated,  and  wonderfully  refreshed.  How  do 


274  PURE    AIR. 

you  account  for  this  ?  Because  the  air  in  the  close 
room  was  exceedingly  impure,  and,  to  some  de- 
gree, poisonous. 

You  have  learnt,  that  when  we  respire,  the  air 
undergoes  a  great  change,  is  robbed  of  that  portion 
which  is  essential  to  life,  and  its  place  supplied  ^y 
another  kind  of  air,  which  kills  animals. 

When  several  candles  or  lamps  are  burning  in 
the  room,  the  air  is  still  more  rapidly  rendered 
unwholesome  ;  because  these  bodies,  in  burning, 
also  deprive  it  of  its  oxygen.  We  can  now  easily 
explain  why,  in  crowded  evening  parties,  we  so 
soon  get  fatigued  and  listless  ;  and  why  people  who 
are  fond  of  them,  and  very  frequently  .go  out,  are 
often  ill,  and  look  pale  and  poorly. 

It  is  very  hurtful  for  several  children  to  sleep 
together  in  the  same  room,  unless  it  is  spacious  and 
freely  ventilated  ;  and  it  is  still  worse  for  them  to 
sleep  in  the  same  bed.  When  this  cannot  be  help- 
ed, the  windows  should  be  often  opened,  and  a 
ventilator  fixed  into  one  of  them,  in  order  that, 
during  the  night,  the  heated  and  foul  air  may 
escape. 

Many  contagious  disorders  are  conveyed  by 
means  of  the  air.  This  should  make  us  very  cau- 
tious in  going  near  places  where  sickness  prevails; 
because  if  we  breathe  an  atmosphere  loaded  with 
effluvia  from  diseased  bodies,  we  run  a  great  risk 
of  catching  the  disorder. 

Rooms  in  which  sick  persons  are  confined  soon 
become  full  of  putrid  exhalations,  or  bad  smells, 


PURE    AIR.  275 

and  are  very  noisome  and  unhealthy,  if  shut  up, 
and  kept  warm.  This,  is  very  wrong,  both  on 
account  of  the  patient,  and  the  attendants.  A  con- 
stant supply  of  fresh  air  is  even  more  necessary 
during  sickness  than  in  health. 

Low,  damp,  and  confined  apartments  are  not  fit 
for  dwelling  places,  as  it  is  quite  impossible  we 
should  ever  keep  well  in  them.  When  deprived 
of  the  cheering  influences  of  light  and  cool  fresh 
air,  we  droop — are  languid — depressed  in  spirits — 
and  have  no  enjoyment.  Our  appetite  is  poor — 
we  do  not  relish  our  food — our  sleep  is  disturbed — 
our  whole  frame,  indeed,  shows  signs  that  it  is 
labouring  under  some  weakening  agent  ; — and  this 
is  a  damp  and  confined  atmosphere. 

Houses,  to  be  healthy,  should  be  built  with  airy 
rooms,  and  in  dry  situations,  and  not  too  closely 
surrounded  by  trees. 

People  who  live  in  swampy  districts,  where  vast 
quantities  of  vegetable  matter  are  constantly  de- 
caying, are  subject  to  ague,  and  other  troublesome 
and  dangerous  disorders.  This  is  owing  to  their 
breathing  damp  and  impure  air. 

Neither  man,  nor  animals,  nor  vegetables  can 
live,  if  the  air  which  surrounds  them  be  not  con- 
stantly renewed.  A  plant,  confined  in  a  glass  case, 
soon  dies  ;  and  instances  have  been  known,  where 
a  number  of  men,  shut  up  in  a  small  close  dun- 
geon, have  perished,  after  dreadful  sufferings. 


276  PRESERVATION  OF  THE  BODY, 

Questions. 

What  is  the  cause  that  workmen  employed  on  certain 
metals,  die  young  ? 

With  what  diseases  are  painters  affected,  and  why? 

How  do  we  feel  when  shut  up  in  a  close  room  7 

How  do  you  account  for  this  ? 

Why  do  candles  and  lamps  make  the  air  impure  1 

Is  it  well  for  several  persons  to  sleep  in  the  same  room  1 

What  means  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  air  pure  in  the 
night  ? 

Why  is  it  that  we  should  be  cautious  in  going  near  places 
where  sickness  prevails  ? 

What  should  be  particularly  attended  to  in  sick  rooms  1 

What  happens  to  us,  if  we  have  not  light  and  fresh  air  ? 

In  what  situations  should  houses  be  built,  in  order  to  be 
healthy  ? 

What  is  the  cause  that  people  in  swampy  places  have  the 
ague  ? 


LESSON  XXVI. 

OF  THE  PRESERVATION  OF  INDIVIDUAL  PARTS  OF 
OUR  BODIES. 

As  our  comfort  depends  so  greatly  on  having 
our  limbs  and  organs  in  a  perfect  state,  we  should 
be  careful  not  to  do  any  thing  which  might  injure 
them.  If  we  are  heedless  in  moving  about,  or  in 
using  cutting  instruments,  or  going,  without  due 
caution,  near  machinery,  when  in  motion,  we  may 
fracture  our  limbs,  inflict  severe  cuts  upon  them, 
or  even  be  deprived  of  them.  Any  of  these  are 


PRESERVATION  OF  THE  BODY. 

serious  misfortunes,  and  may  be  a  source  of  torment 
and  suffering  all  our  after  life. 

The  senses  of  hearing,  smelling,  and  sight  are 
strengthened  by  exercise  out  of  doors.  It  is  very 
bad  for  us  to  mope  our  time  away  in  the  house, 
when  the  weather  is  fine,  and  we  are  not  engaged 
in  some  necessary  duty  ;  because,  it  makes  the 
nose,  eyes,  ears,  and  skin  tender,  and  likely  to  be- 
come sore  when  exposed  to  a  fresh  and  cool  breeze. 

The  sight  is  injured  by  a  dazzling,  unequal,  and 
varying  light.  In  reading  we  should  never  have 
the  sun  shining  on  the  page,  nor  should  we  ever 
read  by  firelight ;  for  not  only  is  the  light  unequal 
and  uncertain,  but  the  sitting  near  the  fire  over- 
heats the  eyes,  and  makes  them  painful. 

The  shades  used  to  cover  lamps  which  darken 
the  room,  and  direct  the  light  downwards,  are  far 
from  being  proper  things  to  read  or  work  by. 
Candles  are  the  best,  and  should  always  be  prefer- 
red to  gas-light  in  sitting  rooms. 

The  hearing  is  rendered  dull  by  violent  and 
sudden  noises,  and  by  an  accumulation  of  wax  in 
the  ear.  This  should  be  carefully  cleared  away, 
as  it  gives  rise  to  many  uneasy  feelings. 

The  taste  is  injured  by  the  constant  use  of 
pungent  food,  and  by  indulging  in  spices.  If  these 
are  persevered  in,  the  tongue  and  palate  are  made 
insensible  to  any  thing  less  stimulating,  and  a  sim- 
ple diet  becomes  tasteless.  Whatever  injures  the 
tone  of  the  stomach,  such  as  the  immoderate  use 
of  wine  and  spirits,  injures  the  taste  also. 
2  A 


£76  PRESERVATION  OF  THE  BODY. 

The  touch  is  kept  perfect  by  being  exercised  on 
a  variety  of  objects  ;  by  the  body  being  in  a  sound 
and  healthy  condition  ;  and  by  strict  attention  to 
personal  cleanliness. 

When  the  hands  and  feet  are  stiff  and  benumbed 
with  cold,  we  should  never  try  to  warm  them  by 
the  fire,  as  this  causes  excruciating  pain,  and  may 
do  them  harm.  The  best  thing  to  restore  the  cir- 
culation is  to  rub  them  together,  or  to  rub  them 
with  snow,  or  to  plunge  them  into  cold  water. 

The  teeth  require  particular  attention.  These 
are  so  necessary  to  us  for  a  variety  of  purposes, 
that  if  we  lose  them,  or  they  become  diseased,  we 
are  sadly  harassed,  and  perhaps  tormented,  by  that 
terrible  pain — toothach. 

It  is  in  most  instances  our  own  fault  that  the 
teeth  become  unsightly,  and  fall  away,  so  early  in 
life.  We  either  disorder  our  stomachs  by  taking 
improper  food,  or  we  take  our  meat  hot,  and  our 
drinks  scalding — certain  modes  of  destroying  the 
teeth.  Another  foolish  thing  children  are  fond  of 
doing,  is  cracking  nuts,  or  plum  stones,  or  biting 
very  hard  substances.  It  is  very  wrong  to  do  so, 
for  mischief  is  always  produced  by  such  habits. 

Perfect  cleanliness  about  the  mouth  should  be 
diligently  practised.  Every  morning,  and  after 
meals,  the  teeth  should  be  cleansed  by  a  soft  brush 
and  pure  water.  A  little  charcoal  now  and  then 
is  all  the  tooth  powder  requisite.  Picking  the 
teeth  with  pins,  knives,  and  forks  is  not  only  a 
disgusting  habit,  but  it  is  also  exceedingly  hurtful. 


TEMPER    AND    PASSIONS.  279 

When  a  tooth  is  so  far  decayed  as  to  be  useless, 
and  is  a  source  of  frequent  pain,  extraction  is  the 
only  cure.  To  endeavour  to  allay  toothach  by 
violent  applications  is  very  pernicious,  and  the 
ruin  of  the  rest  of  the  teeth  is  often  caused  in  this 
way. 

Questions. 

What  kinds  of  accidents  are  we  liable  to  from  careless- 
ness1? 

What  bad  effect  follows  from  confining  ourselves  to  the 
house  T 

By  what  kind  of  light  are  the  eyes  injured  ? 

Why  is  fire-light  bad  to  read  by  ? 

Are  shaded  lamps  proper  to  read  or  work  by  1 

What  kind  of  light  is  the  best  for  a  sitting  room  ? 

By  what  causes  is  the  hearing  rendered  dull  ? 

How  is  the  sense  of  taste  injured  ? 

By  what  means  is  the  touch  kept  perfect  ? 

What  is  the  way  to  get  our  hands  warm,  when  benumbed 
by  cold  1 

By  what  means  do  we  spoil  our  teeth  ? 

Which  is  the  best  mode  of  keeping  our  teeth  clean  ? 

What  is  a  bad  habit,  and  should  be  carefully  avoided? 


280  TEMPER    AND    PASSIONS. 


LESSON  XXVII. 

THE  TEMPER  AND  PASSIONS ADVANTAGES  OP 

CHEERFULNESS  AND  CONTENT. 

IT  is  not  enough  for  the  preservation  of  health, 
that  our  bodies  are  properly  nourished, — that  we 
are  fitly  clothed, — that  we  take  exercise,  and  enjoy 
rest, — that  we  are  cleanly  in  our  persons,  and  live  in 
open  and  airy  situations.  The  good  effects  of  these 
are  in  danger  of  being  quite  done  away  with,  if 
our  temper  and  passions  be  not  properly  regulated. 

It  is  useless  to  make  a  good  meal  of  fit  and  nou- 
rishing diet,  unless  the  mind  is  quiet  and  composed 
after  it.  A  sally  of  passion,  or  a  fit  of  sulkiness, 
spoils  the  digestion,  and  we  had  better  have  gone 
without  food. 

But  it  is  not  after  we  have  taken  food  alone,  that 
passions  and  bad  temper  may  injure  us  ;  we  cannot 
even  eat  if  we  yield  to  them.  We  lose  our  appe- 
tite, the  stomach  gets  disordered,  and  the  most  de- 
licate meal  is  looked  at  with  loathing  and  disgust. 
So  that  unless  the  temper  be  serene  and  cheerful, 
we  eat  without  an  appetite  ;  what  we  take  we 
cannot  digest ;  and  food  rather  does  us  harm  than 
good. 

A  happy-minded  and  amiable  child  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  loveable  things  that  God  has 
given  to  us,  to  soften  our  hearts,  and  to  call  into 


THE    TEMPER    AND   PASSIONS.  281 

play  our  best  affections, — and  we  may  all  be  happy 
if  we  will. 

When  we  are  grown  old  enough  to  be  taught 
these  things,  we  shall,  if  we  have  any  regard  for 
our  health  and  comfort,  never  indulge  in  bursts  of 
violent  passion,  in  fits  of  anger,  or  in  sullenness. 
To  do  so,  is  to  commit  the  greatest  folly  of  which 
we  are  capable.  We  can  enjoy  nothing  when  our 
hearts  are  filled  with  bad  thoughts;  because  as  our 
internal  feelings  or  disposition  are  bright  or  gloomy, 
so  does  every  thing  around  us  appear. 

If  then  we  are  cheerful  and  contented,  all  nature 
smiles  with  us  : — the  air  seems  more  balmy,  the 
sky  more  clear,  the  ground  has  a  brighter  green, 
the  trees  have  a  richer  foliage,  the  flowers  a  more 
fragrant  smell,  the  birds  sing  more  sweetly,  and 
the  sun,  moon  and  stars  all  appear  most  beautiful. 
We  take  our  food  with  relish,  and  whatever  it  may 
be,  it  pleases  us.  We  feel  better  for  it — stronger 
and  livelier,  and  fit  for  exertion. 

Now  what  happens  to  us  if  we  are  ill-tempered 
and  discontented  ?  Why,  there  is  not  any  thing 
which  can  please  us.  We  quarrel  with  our  food, 
with  our  dress,  with  our  amusements,  with  our 
companions,  and  with  ourselves.  Nothing  comes 
right  for  us;  the  weather  is  either  too  hot  or  too 
cold,  too  dry  or  too  damp.  Neither  sun,  nor 
moon,  nor  stars  have  any  beauty;  the  fields  are 
^barren,  the  flowers  lustreless,  and  the  birds  silent. 
We  move  about  like  some  evil  spirit,  neither 
loving  nor  beloved  by  any  thing. 
2  A  2 


282  THE    TEMPER    AND    PASSIONS. 

Besides  robbing  ourselves  of  comfort  and  health, 
and  becoming  hateful  to  ourselves  and  to  all  around 
us,  by  passion  and  bad  temper,  we  also  unfit  our- 
selves for  performing  our  private  and  public  duties. 
The  passionate  man — and  the  passionate  child 
leads  to  the  passionate  man — is  not  fit  to  mingle  in 
society.  He  is  always  making  himself  enemies, 
and  giving  pain  to  his  friends  and  family.  Nor  is 
this  all;  every  one  who  indulges  in  bad  temper,  and 
gives  way  to  morose  and  sour  feelings,  sets  a  mis- 
chievous example  to  all  around  him,  and  spreads  a 
baneful  influence  over  the  whole  range  of  his  con- 
nexions. The  affections  become  weakened — con- 
fidence is  destroyed — health  is  injured — nervous 
and  painful  diseases  are  created,  and  comfort  and 
happiness  are  banished  from  his  dwelling. 

To  a  man  of  this  miserable  disposition,  the 
troubles  which  all  must  expect  to  go  through  in 
this  life,  become  so  many  sources  of  torment;  and 
all  the  common  evils  of  life  are  changed  into  real 
misfortunes.  Whilst  the  cheerful  and  thankful 
man  passes  his  days  in  such  happiness  as  we  are 
fitted  to  enjoy,  the  other  is  gloomy  and  dissatisfied, 
and  makes  his  home  cheerless.  His  countenance 
is  clouded,  and  his  gait  sluggish;  his  body  loses  its 
healthy  tone,  and  his  mind  is  incapable  of  receiving 
those  impressions  from  the  external  world,  which 
our  all-bountiful  Creator  has  sent  to  minister  to  our 
health  and  pleasure. 

Always  bear  in  mind,  therefore,  that  if  you 
would  preserve  health,  you  must  be  good-tern- 


THE    TEMPER   AND    PASSIONS.  283 

pered;  that  if  you  would  enjoy  the  beauties  of  na- 
ture, and  the  comforts  of  life,  you  must  be  good- 
tetnpered;  that  if  you  would  be  useful  to  yourself, 
and  to  others,  you  must  be  good-tempered  ;  and 
that  if  you  desire  to  show  yourself  worthy  of  the 
blessings  which  Almighty  God  showers  down 
upon  you,  you  must  be  content,  good-tempered, 
and  thankful. 


Questions. 

Why  is  it  that  our  meals  are  made  useless  to  us  by  pas- 
sion? 

What  may  be  the  consequence  of  this  interruption  to  diges- 
tion ? 

What  will  deprive  us  of  appetite  ? 

In  what  way  is  a  child's  health  and  happiness  to  be  pre- 
served 1 

How  is  it  that  bad  temper  makes  every  thing  about  us  dis- 
pleasing 1 

How  may  we  enjoy  all  the  beauties  of  creation,  and  make 
every  thing  delightful  which  comes  near  us  ? 

What  happens  to  us  if  we  are  bad  tempered  ? 

Does  the  passionate  child  make  the  passionate  man  1 

Is  the  passionate  man  a  healthy  man,  or  a  good  member  of 
society? 


THE    END. 


YA  04339 


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